3. THE NEED
FOR FLOOD
DEFENCE AND
LAND DRAINAGE
Land use, its quality and management, is a major determinant
in a country's ability to support its population and sustain a
satisfactory level of economic activity.
England and Wales is not a large land mass, and in terms
of usable land is reduced significantly when removing vast areas
with virtually no development potential and only limited agricultural
use. Such areas would include the Pennines, North Yorkshire Moors,
Welsh Mountains, Breckland and the Moors of the South West. With
these exclusions, and considered against the population level,
the map assumes a different appearance and the use of lowland
areas assumes greater importance.
Such areas, predominantly within IDB drainage districts,
are totally dependent upon flood defence and land drainage works
to sustain current land use, which ranges from the heavy industrial
complexes on the South Humber Bank to cattle grazing in the Somerset
levels. Without such works these two areas would be marshes subject
to frequent salt water inundations. In the first case, with no
prospect of any development use, and in the second, supporting
only poor quality summer grazing and missing the opportunity to
create an area of outstanding conservation interest.
In providing the service IDBs have two key roles, that as
an operator effectively managing the often complex drainage system,
and as a regulator ensuring that the actions of others do not
create or exacerbate flood risks. From these activities the following
benefits are divided:
3.1 Development
Throughout the years the IDBs have, in conjunction with the
Environment Agency and its predecessors, created the situation
where flood protection and water level management has enabled,
often remote, areas to be considered for development. The flatness
of land in drainage districts, and often the remoteness itself,
has attracted industrial development on a large scale. Whilst
the initial development would tend to be associated with the agricultural
industry, this has in more recent times changed dramatically.
Today power stations, including nuclear, major petrochemical complexes
and a wide range of industrial manufacturers are established in
areas totally dependent upon flood defence and land drainage.
These provide both national and local benefits, driving the economy,
providing employment, and encouraging further development and
infrastructure. Adjacent to the Humber Estuary, between the Humber
Bridge and Grimsby, is a drainage district within which billions
of pounds of investment has been made in power stations, chemical
manufacture, petroleum and other major industrial activities.
The entire area is protected by the Environment Agency's tidal
flood defences and the IDBs' pumping stations and channel system
to prevent inland flooding. These works have collectively provided
conditions attracting a level and type of industrial activity
which would not be environmentally acceptable elsewhere. Equally
the Dungeness nuclear power station, in Kent, on the extremity
of Romney Marsh would be much less welcome at other locations.
As well as the obvious development, the infrastructure on
the surface, below ground and overhead, to serve these areas and
indeed pass through them, is only in place due to the flood protection
and land drainage works. Without these the unstable ground conditions,
with permanent waterlogging and frequent surface flooding, would
prevent the laying of gas mains, construction of roads and the
erection of supports to overhead services.
The creation of, and maintenance to, the 1.2 million hectares
within drainage districts has enabled certain areas to be selected
for industrial development in locations where the environmental
impact is acceptable, and where the industry can be served with
the necessary infrastructure.
With industrial development, employment and housing provision
has inevitably followed and in many lowland areas, notably Cambridgeshire,
the extension to towns and villages, as part of the structure
planning, has resulted in a substantial increase in the population
in these dependent areas.
Many drainage districts, which up until 20 years ago accommodated
a population based predominantly on agriculture, now include areas
of expanding housing and the associated support development, supermarkets,
schools, etc.
In many coastal areas IDBs play a vital part in maintaining
conditions which have enabled the development of holiday facilities.
Particularly along the Lincolnshire coastline tourism has developed
as a major local industry, with considerable development providing
caravan and amusement parks, along with a range of recreational
activities. The East Lindsey District Council alone derive over
£200 million revenue from tourism, a significant part of
which is generated through facilities provided within drainage
districts. Butlins Funcoast World, currently being re-developed
at a cost of £60 million, will alone provide accommodation
for 9,200 in rooms/chalets, with 900 caravans and a peak employment
level of 1,300.
Low lying areas adjacent to the coastline provide a situation
which is ideal to meet the needs of holidaymakers and are available
only as a result of the operation of the IDBs. These areas substantially
underpin the local economy and their continuing use is totally
dependent upon the local management of the drainage system, including
pumping stations, to meet requirements.
3.2 Agricultural Production
The flood protection and land drainage, together with the
soil types and irrigation support, have created some of the best,
if not the best, farmland in Europe. The contribution from IDB
drainage districts is of paramount significance in feeding the
nation and it is not coincidental that the vast proportion of
the agricultural graded Class 1 land is within these areas. The
combination of conditions and the essential management input results
in the majority of the vegetable and salad crop production coming
from drainage districts, with many crops grown exclusively in
such areas.
With the benefits of water level management and irrigation,
quality produce is available to meet the increasing demands of
the supermarkets, and this water level control is fundamental
in reaching these standards, both for the home and European markets.
Add to this the cereal, oil seed rape, sugar beet and other crops,
and the significance of drainage districts is readily appreciated.
In contrast to the arable areas are those under permanent
grassland, again through the ability to manage water levels, conditions
prevail in which even in drier years, high quality herbage is
available.
In terms of meeting the country's food requirement the importance
of the output from drainage districts is paramount. If this level
of production was to cease, or be seriously impaired, it could
not be replaced with home grown crops, and putting costs aside,
it is unlikely that the high quality crops lost could be obtained
from overseas markets.
3.3 Environment
Drainage districts are areas in which the hand of man is
most evident, and include extensive areas which have been reclaimed
from the sea and from inland bog, creating a truly man made environment.
The impact on the coastal environment has been negligible, as
evidence has shown that when in the past reclamation banks have
been constructed the development of the seaward marsh has accelerated
and previous conditions restored. There has unquestionably been
a significant loss of fresh water wetland areas and this, in environmental
terms, is the price paid in creating areas subsequently used for
development and intense agricultural production.
Whilst the wetland bog habitat in the country has been reduced
significantly in size, it has not been a total loss in habitat
interest. Indeed it could be argued that large homogenous habitats
have been replaced with areas of greater diversity, albeit extending
over smaller areas. This aspect is recognised by English Nature
with the designation of Sites of Special Scientific Interest within
drainage districts, the quality of which are highly dependent
upon water level management. A vast number of sites have attracted
enhanced designations under the European Habitats Directive and
some under the RAMSAR convention, considered to have the highest
world confirmation of habitat importance. The establishment of
Environmentally sensitive Areas and Countryside Stewardship Schemes,
is further recognition that IDBs are able to control water levels
to very sensitive limits and create conditions in which habitats
are enhanced whilst maintaining an appropriate level of agricultural
production.
An example of how the habitat has been changed, rather than
lost, is the Somerset Levels, where protection against the inundation
from tidal waters has created a freshwater habitat of national
and international importance. This habitat will only remain as
long as the IDBs in the area maintain their systems which in turn,
and most importantly, sustain cattle grazing which is so fundamental
to the quality of the habitat.
Recently, IDBs in voluntary response to a MAFF initiative
have prepared, or are in the state of preparing water level management
plans for drainage systems which influence designated SSSIs. This
process, carried out in conjunction with English Nature, is on-going,
with scheduled plan reviews, and with the objective of achieving
the right balance of water level and channel maintenance to provide
the optimum conditions to suit land use, waterway interest and
conservation.
The designation of areas as being of national and international
importance, often after generations of maintenance by IDBs, is
testimony to the wide interest that can be served through the
local management of water sensitive drainage districts. The creation
of new wetlands will take place with the co-operation of the IDBs,
and this, together with sustaining grazing areas, provides a secure
future for wetland habitat and one in harmony with other land
uses, public expectations and European Directives.
4. DELIVERING
THE SERVICE
4.1 Management
The respective roles of the Environment Agency and IDBs provides
a two tier system through which the overall service is delivered.
There is a clear distinction between the responsibilities of the
two bodies and therefore duplication of input is not an issue,
and any confusion in the minds of the public as to the role of
each body is limited.
The success of the arrangement, which has endured for some
years, is in the recognition that the nature and purpose of flood
defence and land drainage systems vary and consequently need differing
management approaches. At one end of the management spectrum is
the need to develop long term strategic plans covering the coastline,
promote major defence works and operate extensive weather monitoring
and flood warning systems. At the other is the need to meet detailed
water level control targets, in often very small sub catchments,
and respond to what may have been the most localised heavy rain.
With this thumbnail sketch of the differences it can be appreciated
that a uniform management approach would not be appropriate. If
the service was administered by a single body, effective strategic
management would have difficulty in addressing localised detail
and vice-versa.
The topography and location of land, relative to rivers and
the coastline, determines the sensitivity of the areas to flood
risk and the need within them to adopt a detailed and local management
approach, an objective which is readily achieved through the IDBs.
The overall management of an IDB is effected through its
board members who are either elected by the agricultural ratepayers
or nominated by district councils whose areas extend within the
drainage district. The former bring to the board detailed local
knowledge of the service and not least are representative of the
owners of the system. Unlike other public services IDBs are, almost
without exception, working on private land, and as such it is
essential that excellent relationships between the board and occupiers
of land is maintained and the board composition is fundamental
in achieving this. The district council nominees represent the
non-agricultural interests in the drainage district, which, among
others, will include domestic, commercial and industrial property,
highways and infrastructure, amenity use, and conservation interest.
Whilst the members are council nominees, there is no requirement
for them to be serving councillors or officers and the adequate
representation of the range of interests should be the objective.
The proportion of elected to nominated members is determined
by the relative proportion of income from the two sectors, the
only deviation from this is that the nominated members are limited
to a majority of one on the board. This provision is to ensure
continuity of membership in the event of local authority election
swings which could result in substantial membership changes. Flood
defence and land drainage is a long term business and this continuity
of experience is vital to effective decision making.
Drainage districts are managed by Boards, the composition
of which ensures that local interests are fully represented. The
members make a positive contribution, outside as well as within,
formal meetings and preside over the provision of a service predominatly
serving the local community and supported by substantial local
funding.
Whilst boards have been established many years, they are
unique among public bodies in that they have not expanded and
remain virtually single purpose in providing the flood defence
and land drainage service. Equally, they have not individually
expanded in size as, again unique to public bodies, their boundaries
are limited by statute to only include the land and property which
benefits from the flood defence and land drainage operations.
It follows that a case could not be made to include undulating
and elevated land and as a result IDBs are limited to the areas
where the need is at its greatest and is clearly identified. This
has resulted in drainage districts varying in size from a few
hundred hectares up to 40,000 hectares, and whilst an initial
appraisal may consider this to be weakness, it is in fact a strength.
It ensures the appropriate level of local input and operational
activity against need, and the disbenefits of a standardised approach
in variable ciricumstances is avoided.
The large IDBs directly employ administrative and technical
staff, with the medium and smaller IDBs generally contracting
services. Over the last 20 years the number of IDBs has reduced
from 400 down to the present level of 247. This has been achieved,
in some areas, with the abolition of some smaller IDBs. the Agency's
predecessors accepting responsibility for the drainage system,
and through, in appropriate situations, the amalgamation of IDBs.
Where small boards exist they are, almost without exception, managed
under consortium arrangements comprising a number of boards, where
they have the dual benefits of management and retention of the
local input and representation through the independent board.
In providing the service, IDBs maintain over 18,000 kilometres
of channels, including 273 kilometres of culverts, and operate
over 600 pumping stations.
4.2 Funding
IDBs secure income from a number of sources:
1. Drainage rates calculated against the "rental
values" of agricultural land and buildings in the drainage
district.
2. Special levies, calculated against "rental values",
served on constituent district councils and related to the factories,
shops, offices and other property and land within the drainage
district.
3. Grant from MAFF towards the cost of approved schemes,
including water level management plans. Other than for water level
management plans in sites of international importance the current
rate of grant is 25 per cent. All schemes must satisfy the requirements
as set out by MAFF in its "Project Appraisal Guidance Notes"
and the Priority Scoring System.
4. Contributions from the Environment Agency where the
IDB's drainage systems, including pumping stations, are required
to deal with water flowing into the District from higher land.
5. Where development impacts adversely on the drainage
system funding is secured to cover the costs of work necessary
to reduce that impact to an acceptable level. The policy is to
ensure that development does not impose a financial burden on
existing ratepayers and special levy councils, and that these
costs, as with other elements of infrastructure, are met in full
by the promoters of such developments.
In total IDBs received revenue income of £36.2 million
in 1996/97, which was recovered from the following sources:
