Memorandum submitted by Mercian Transport
Consultancy (RT 12)
CHAPTER ONE—INTRODUCTION
1.1 Structure of the Report
The first chapter identifies the types of transport
systems that can be described as Light Rapid Transit (LRT), followed
by a general examination of the problems that have been encountered
in implementing LRT projects. The second and third chapters deal
respectively with system developments in the United Kingdom and
abroad during the course of the last 25 years. The fourth chapter
looks at Ultra Light Rails systems. The fifth chapter examines
the major factors that require attention if LRT is to make a significant
contribution to the development of integrated urban transport
systems. The final chapter summarises the main conclusions and
recommendations that have been reached.
1.2 Definition of Light Rapid Transit
There appears to be no generally accepted definition
of LRT. For the purposes of this report, LRT has been defined
to include any system where vehicles can travel both:
(i) on a private trackway with guidance;
and
(ii) on a public highway, either with or
without an external guidance facility.
This definition specifically includes tramways,
guided buses and Ultra Light Rail, but excludes fully segregated
rail systems (e.g. Tyne and Wear Metro, Docklands Light Railway)
and "conventional" buses and trolleybuses, including
the "showcase" type of bus services (e.g. Route 33 in
Birmingham).
1.3 Types of System
The main types of LRT systems that are currently
in operation are:
(1) Conventional electric tramways/light
rail lines that include some street running—over 300 systems,
worldwide;
(2) Guided buses—less than 10 systems;
(3) Ultra Light Rail—various small
local lines.
In addition, various experimental systems are
being developed, including:
(1) Buses using a central guidance rail;
(2) Buses with electronic guidance (e.g.
by a buried wire).
To the best of my knowledge, none of these experimental
LRT systems operates in regular public service on a commercial
basis.
1.4 The Light Rapid Transit Revival
Following a general decline in the number of
tramway systems in most countries outside the "Eastern Bloc",
during the period from 1945 to 1970, the last 25 years have witnessed
a steady LRT revival, both in respect of new light rail networks
and in the expansion of existing systems, accompanied by the introduction
of a limited number of guided bus services.
1.5 General Problems
In most of the countries where there has been
a significant LRT revival, similar problems have been encountered,
these include:
(1) The reluctance of many car owners to
consider using public transport;
(2) The "historic image" of "first
generation" trams as being "rattling and clanging relics
from a bygone age";
(3) The inherent conflict between the environmental,
social and economic need to create reliable integrated public
transport services and a political commitment to the use of market
forces to provide competition in service operation;
(4) The desire to contain public expenditure
and to transfer any risk to the private sector;
(5) The cost of new LRT vehicles, typically
around £1 million for a double articulated tramcar, with
about 60 seats and capacity for a further 100 standing passengers.
The potential for overcoming these difficulties,
and thereby improving the prospects for LRT expansion, is examined
in chapter five of this report.
CHAPTER TWO—UNITED
KINGDOM
2.1 Overview
The creation of the first Passenger Transport
Authorities and Executives in 1969 was intended to provide a means
of co-ordinating the operation of public transport services within
the larger conurbations. Various studies were undertaken by the
new bodies and a number of improvements introduced. Initially,
the projects tended to relate to the expansion of existing services
(e.g. the Liverpool underground rail loop). However, the need
to make better use or available finance led to the examination
of alternative possibilities, including light rail, trolleybuse
and guided buses. The first scheme to be implemented, using this
revised approach, was the Tyne and Wear Metro, which utilises
a mixture of light and heavy rail practices. Proposals for the
construction of new tramways were hindered, in most cases, by
the need to obtain private Acts of Parliament, an expensive and
time-consuming process. In an attempt to reduce these difficulties,
the Transport and Works Act, 1992 has replaced the need for a
private Act by an order making procedure.
Perhaps the greatest obstacle to the expansion
of LRT systems has been the provisions of the Transport Act 1985
that were designed to create "free competition" in the
operation of bus services, including those that can be routed
along the same corridor as an LRT system or any other fixed track
facility (e.g. a suburban Railway). Another serious obstacle to
LRT development in the UK has been the severe and sometimes inconsistent
constraints placed on public funding towards the capital cost
of LRT systems. It is largely attributable to the perserverance
of local authority elected representatives and officers that some
LRT schemes have actually been completed and are now in operation
in South Yorkshire, Greater Manchester and the West Midlands,
with the Croydon system and a further route in Manchester expected
to open before the end of the year. The following sections examine
the individual schemes and undertake SWOT (Strengths/Weaknesses/Opportunities/Threats)
assessments for each system.
2.2 Blackpool Tramway
2.2.1 Background
The tramway that runs along the coast from the
Blackpool southern boundary (Starr Gate) to Fleetwood is the sole
mainland survivor of the UK's first generation tramways. Whilst
the majority of the 80 strong fleet is now over 60 years old,
an ongoing refurbishment programme results in elderly trams emerging
from a major overhaul "as good as new".
2.2.2 Strengths
1. The Blackpool tramway has become almost
a national institution and any closure proposal would undoubtedly
arouse widespread opposition. The tramway is regarded by Blackpool
Borough Council, which still owns the local tram and bus operating
company, as being one of the town's attractions and is publicised
accordingly in the resort's holiday guide.
2. In addition to visitors, there appears
to be a large number of local people who regularly use the tramway
to travel along the coast, for example from northern Blackpool
to Fleetwood.
3. As there is only a single route, which
in Blackpool parallels the shoreline, visitors have only to recall
in which direction they want to travel to reach their destination;
bus service usage can be more complicated.
4. The lack of adequate parking space at
many smaller hotels encourages visitors arriving by car to travel
locally by public transport—if you leave a parking space
there may not be another available when you return!
5. The overhead line infrastructure has
recently been completely renewed between Starr Gate and Thornton
Gate (Cleveleys), about 70 per cent of the total length of the
route.
6. The autumn illuminations extend the resort's
holiday season and provide useful extra patronage for the tramway
during September and October.
7. Most of the public transport facilities
within Blackpool are provided by the one operator, thus giving
greater potential for co-ordination of tram and bus services.
2.2.3 Weaknesses
1. Although there is an ongoing programme
of renewal, the condition of the tramtrack can best be described
as variable. If riding standards are to approach those of modern
light rail systems (eg Sheffield, West Midlands), finance will
need to be made available for a more comprehensive renewal programme.
2. The coastal location, with prevailing
saline on-shore winds, creates extra work to counteract corrosion
of vehicles and the infrastructure.
3. As the majority of the fleet is of traditional
high-floor design, there are access difficulties for mobility
impaired passengers. The operator has recently considered measures
to alleviate this problem.
2.2.4 Opportunities
1. Suggestions have been put forward for
a southward extension of the tramway into Lytham St. Anne's, one
possibility being by a link from Starr Gate into the Railtrack
line, south of Squires Gate station. Unfortunately, an otherwise
attractive route for a link would involve crossing an important
nature reserve.
2. In 1996 Blackpool Council publicised
a proposal for the creation of a peoplemover facility along the
South Shore Central Corridor route, between Blackpool South station
and the Tower area. The proposal was intended to help visitors
using the extensive car and coach parks adjoining the Corridor
to reach the seafront and central leisure attractions. The proposal
is currently in abeyance, pending the outcome of redevelopment
investigations. A standard gauge tramway physically linked to
the coastal line appears to be the most effective means of distributing
these visitors to the main attractions and the numerous hotels
located along the promenade.
2.2.5 Threats
Under present conditions, probably the most
serious threat to the future of the tramway would be if one of
the large passenger transport operators introduced competing bus
services in the area.
2.3 Manchester Metrolink
2.3.1 Background
The siting of Manchester's main railway stations
around the edge of the city's central area and the absence of
direct cross-city links has been a longstanding problem for travellers
entering or leaving the city. In the 1960s and 1970s various schemes
were considered for resolving this problem, including the construction
of new railway tunnels. After detailed assessment of alternative
possibilities, it was decided in 1984 that the most effective
solution would be to provide on-street light rail connections
between Victoria, Deansgate and Piccadilly stations, which would
be extended to replace the life-expired electric trains on the
suburban services to Bury and Altrincham by light rail vehicles
operating at a greater frequency. Appropriate powers were eventually
obtained and the new system opened in 1992, including a short
branch to the Undercroft at Piccadilly station. A further branch
of the Metrolink system is currently under construction through
Salford Quays to the centre of Eccles. The works are well advanced
and the route should be at least partially open to public service
by the end of this year.
2.3.2. Strengths
1. Although there was a break after the
closure of the heavy rail services, during which there were substitute
bus services, the Bury and Altrincham light rail lines started
operation with a substantial core of former British Rail passengers.
2. As street running is confined to short
lengths in central Manchester, the present Metrolink services
are relatively unaffected by traffic congestion.
3. The trams give good access to most Manchester
city centre attractions.
4. The high frequency service means that
there is no need to consult a timetable before travelling.
5. The two former railway routes are fairly
direct, which enables fast end-to-end journey times to be achieved.
6. Metrolink patronage has steadily increased
and is understood to be about 14 million journeys per annum, at
the present time.
2.3.3. Weaknesses
1. The extensive use of former platforms
on the Bury and Altrincham lines resulted in the use of high-floor
trams. Consequently, on-street stops are considerably more intrusive
that is the case with systems using low-floor trams (Sheffield,
Croydon, etc).
2. As it was not practicable to completely
renew the track on the former railway lines, the quality of ride
on these parts of the system is generally worse than under comparable
conditions in Sheffield and the West Midlands.
2.3.4. Opportunities
1. The basic intention from the start of
planning was that the Metrolink system should be progressively
developed into a comprehensive network. A considerable amount
of work has been undertaken by Greater Manchester PTA in planning
for future expansion, including protection of potential routes,
public inquiries and preparation of orders, under the terms of
the Transport and Works Act. The proposed routes involve a combination
of conversion of existing suburban rail services, new private
rights of way, roadside and central reservations and some on-street
running, mainly in urban centres. The PTA is currently trying
to obtain government support for a single contract procedure for
a package of services, which could give considerable savings in
administration and legal costs. The proposals include routes to
Oldham/Rochdale, East Manchester and South Manchester/Airport.
2. As in South Yorkshire, the PTA is seeking
governmental support for comprehensive integration of public transport
services within the area.
3. In order to increase potential patronage,
there appears to be a strong case for extending the Eccles route
(currently under construction) to new Park and Ride facilities
near the Motorway junction at Peel Green and/or Winton.
2.3.5. Threats
1. As in Sheffield, Manchester Metrolink
suffers from bus competition on parallel routes.
2. Current indications are that Manchester
is likely to remain the only second generation operator of high-floor
trams in the UK, with consequential implications in respect of
reduced potential for cost savings from larger scale production
of new trams and ongoing difficulties in finding suitable sites
for on-street stops.
2.4 South Yorkshire Supertram
2.4.1. Background
Sheffield was the last bastion of first generation
City tramways in England, with the final route closures taking
place in October 1960. Within 15 years, proposals were being advanced
for the introduction of a new tramway system in the City. After
several delays, due mainly to financial and political constraints,
a system of three radial lines to (Meadowhall, Halfway and Middlewood)
was finally approved in 1990 and opened, in stages, during 1994-95.
2.4.2. Strengths
1. The new system has been superbly engineered—in
August 1999 the ride was still remarkably smooth and generally
superior to that given by most modern cars and buses.
2. Most of the infrastructure for the overhead
wires is well designed, particularly on the reserved track sections.
Extensive use is made of buildings for supporting wires in the
City centre.
3. The trams have low-floor access and on-street
stops have been designed to avoid large ramps and steps.
4. The use of conductors for fare collection
should virtually eliminate fare-dodging and give greater perceived
security for travellers.
5. Extensive traffic management measures,
including tram priority at signals, facilitates a smooth passage
for the trams.
6. The trams have very good hill climbing
ability, with all axles being separately powered.
7. Shelters and other items at stops are
well designed and maintained.
2.4.3. Weaknesses
1. At the large Meadowhall out-of-town shopping
complex, adjacent to the tram terminus, tram passengers have a
long trek across a bridge and then alongside the car park to reach
the shopping malls. A similar situation occurs at the Crystal
Peaks shopping centre on the Halfway route, where the tramway
is, in effect, diverted around the outside of the car park.
2. The longest route, to Halfway, is indirect
in comparison with road links to the City centre used by competing
buses and cars. It was noted during a recent visit that the Park
and Ride car park at the Halfway terminus was only about 25 per
cent full on a working weekday.
3. The termini of the Middleton route and
the Malin Bridge spur are within the City's inner suburbs and
approximate to those on the former tram routes that were discontinued
in the the 1950s. The spur is less than half-a-mile in length,
which makes it difficult to justify the complex on-street junction
with the main line.
2.4.4. Opportunities
1. If the Supertram network is to form backbone
of an integrated transport system for Sheffield, there is an urgent
need to increase the area that is easily accessible to tram services.
Priority routes for assessment include:
(i) A branch along Glossop road to the Royal
Hallamshire Hospital, as reportedly to be under consideration
by the operator, with the possibility of an extension towards
Fullwood.
(ii) An extension of the Malin Bridge spur
to Stannington and/or Wadsley.
(iii) One or two radial lines to the South-west,
probably to Totley and/or Greenhill.
(iv) A northerly radial line, possibly to
Ecclesfield.
The extra route mileage would provide tram access
to the City centre for more passengers and improve interchange
facilities for cross-city travel.
2. The development of the local authority/PTA
"Partnership Approach" to the promotion of integrated
transport, as part of the proposed creation of a Centre of Excellence
for Integrated Transport could offer the best opportunity for
improving the effectiveness and efficiency of the tramway.
2.4.5 Threats
(1) Sheffield has a plethora of bus operators,
with some routes providing direct competition with the tramway
services.
(2) There is understood to have been an
above average rate of growth of car ownership and usage in the
Sheffield area in recent years.
2.5 Midland Metro
2.5.1 Background
Parliamentary powers for the construction of
Line 1 of Midland Metro were obtained in 1989, but it took a further
period of nearly six years, until July1995, to get governmental
authorisation for the £145 million package that was required
to meet the cost of constructing the line and the 16 trams to
operate it. Line 1 is just over 20 kilometres in length and utilises
the trackbed of the former Great Western main line from Birmingham
(Snow Hill) to Priestfield, in the suburbs of Wolverhampton, from
which point the final two kilometres runs on-street or in central
reservation to terminate in Wolverhampton town centre. The tramway
opened to public service on 31 May 1999.
2.5.2 Strengths
1. Unlike Manchester Metrolink's Bury and
Altrincham lines, Line 1 of Midland Metro has been laid with new
ballasted track, along the former railway section, which gives
a very smooth ride.
2. The six minute daytime frequendy avoids
the need to consult a timetable. In addition, information is
provided at each stop on the waiting time prior to the arrival
of the next tram.
The operating company for Line 1, the local
rail franchisee (Central Trains) and the operators of over 80
per cent of local bus services are all subsidiaries of the National
Express group. Consequently, there should be less difficulty in
co-ordinating services on Line1 with other local transport services
than is the case in other conurbations.
4. The infrastructure at tram stops is well
designed and, so far, well maintained.
5. The Bilston stop adjoins the town centre
bus station and is conveniently sited for local shops and a street
market.
6. The stops in residential areas are reasonably
accessible, incorporating ramps for wheelchairs and prams. Access
to stops in the West Bromwich area is facilitated by a lineside
footway/cycleway.
2.5.3 Weaknesses
1. If the trams are to attract car owners,
the Urban Traffic Control system must ensure that they receive
priority at all signal controlled junctions and crossings. The
main difficulties appear to occur at the Wolverhampton Ring Road
roundabout, where the trams do not seem to have any priority.
2. The placing of control equipment on the
rooves of the trams, without any overall covering does not appear
to be appropriate for a line that operates extensively in cuttings,
with many overbridges that provide opportunities for local vandals
to indulge in "bridge bombing". Strong removable roof
covers should not be expensive in relation to overall vehicle
costs; they could also give some protection against lighting strikes,
which disabled one tram during the first few days of public service
operation.
2.5.4 Opportunities
1. If Line 1 is to achieve the primary purpose
of being the main artery for local travel along the Birmingham-Wolverhampton
corridor, the route needs to be extended at both ends, in order
to give effective access to the main commuting and shopping destinations
in the central cores of Birmingham and Wolverhampton. In Birmingham
this objective should be achieved by the PTA's plans for an extension
across the City centre to the Edgbaston Shopping Centre, from
whence there should be great traffic potential for a further extension
along Hagley Road to Bearwood and Quinton.
2. The PTA's current proposal for an anti-clockwise
loop around Wolverhampton's central core is officially regarded
as being of lower priority. If the loop is not considered viable,
a lower cost alternative might be to extend beyond the existing
terminus into the central pedestrian area.
3. The PTA currently has a proposal to construct
a line southwards from Wednesbury on line1 to Brierley Hill mainly
using sections of a disused railway route.
4. The prospects for further expansion of
the Metro network are likely to depend on the acceptability of
greater use of trams in pedestrian streets in urban centres combined
with semi-fast running on radial routes, utilising central or
roadside reservations and/or possibly joint operation on lightly
used Railtrack lines.
5. In order to fully justify street running
in Wolverhampton, one or two extra stops could be of benefit along
that section.
2.5.5 Threats
Probably the greatest threat to the expansion
of Midland Metro is the prevailing concern of some local businessmen
and Councillors regarding any measures that might affect commerce
and industry in the West Midlands. This concern appears to be
particularly sensitive in respect of any proposals for "road
charging" or "workplace parking levies" that could
be required to assist the funding of new Metro routes or extensions.
2.6 Croydon Tramlink
2.6.1 Background
The central area of Croydon is probably the
largest suburban shopping and business centre in London. The population
of the borough is greater, for example, than that of either Coventry
or Nottingham. Proposals for a new light rail network were first
put forward in a study report in 1986. From 1990 onwards these
proposals have been actively promoted by London Transport and
the Borough Council. In the autumn of 1996, contracts were let
for the construction and operation of the initial network, which
consists of the converted former railway to Wimbledon, the creation
of a street-based town centre loop and the construction of a three-pronged
system in an easterly direction from the town. Croydon Tramlink
is a mixture of former railway routes, new private rights-of-way,
side and central reservations and short sections of street running.
The system will operate as a cross-town line (from Wimbledon to
Elmers End) and two radial lines to Beckenham Junction and New
Addington. Trams are currently operating on driver training and
it is expected that public service will start, at least on most
of the system, by the end of the year.
2.6.2 Strengths
1. As Croydon Tramlink will operate entirely
within the Greater London area, it will not be subject to unregulated
bus competition. Indeed, proposals are being progressed to co-ordinate
tram and bus services within the borough.
2. Croydon Council and London Transport
are actively promoting the ongoing development of the system.
3. Croydon Tramlink will operate under a
99 year concession and should not therefore be subject to the
problems arising from lack of investment during the latter part
of a short term contract.
4. Wherever practicable, extraneous road
traffic has been removed from the on-street sections of the system.
5. Extensive priority has been given to
trams at signalised junctions and crossings.
6. Tramlink has good connections with main
line rail services at various locations. Perhaps the best example
in in the Forecourt of East Croydon, which is one of the busiest
stations in the London suburban network.
2.6.3 Weaknesses
1. The Wimbledon route is partly single-track,
which could cause extensive operating difficulties in the event
of a tram breaking down.
2. Due to the need to economise in construction
costs, it has not been possible to use tubular steel posts on
some street-running sections, which has given rise to complaints
regarding loss of amenity.
3. Nearly 10 per cent of the total cost
of the system had to be spent on relocating utility services.
2.6.4 Opportunities
1. Plans are being formulated for various
extensions, including lines to serve Crystal Palace, Sutton and
Morden.
2. Proposals are under consideration for
the introduction of similar light rail networks in other London
suburbs.
2.6.5 Threats
As elsewhere there is likely to be a problem
in raising finance for expanding the system.
2.7 Nottingham
In common with many other medium sized cities,
Nottingham has suffered from severe traffic congestion for many
years. About 25 years ago, a radical attempt was made to improve
the situation by imposing a "ring-and-collar" around
the City centre. The scheme was designed to restrict entry by
private cars and give priority to buses. The project proved to
be very controversial and was subsequently abandoned. More recent
studies have indicated that the introduction of a light rail line
entering the City centre from the northern suburbs should give
major economic and environmental benefits. Parliamentary powers
were obtained in 1994 for a line from Hucknall to the City centre,
with a branch to Cinderhill. The northern section of the main
route will run parallel to a recently reopened "heavy"
rail line, with the southern end operating on-street. In 1998,
it was announced that government funding would be made available
to allow construction work to proceed. The system will operate
on a 30 year concession. The construction and operating consortium
includes the City Council's bus company and Transdev, which is
involved in the operation of several new tramways in France. It
is intended that extensive Park and Ride facilities will be provided
at the two outer termini and some other suburban stops.
2.8 South Hampshire
There is a longstanding proposal for a new LRT
system to operate in south Hampshire. The County Council, in co-operation
with Portsmouth City Council, has been promoting proposals for
a route connecting Fareham, Gosport and Portsmouth to form the
basis of an integrated transport network in the area. The results
of a comprehensive consultation exercise showed an overwhelming
preference for a light rail line rather than the use of guided
buses (by a ratio of more than 7 to 1). Consequently, subsequent
detailed planning has been on that basis. The proposed line would
utilise a former railway alignment between Fareham and Gosport,
with on-street running in the three town centres. A submerged
tube would be used to cross the harbour entrance between Gosport
and Portsmouth. The total length of the proposed line is about
14 kilometres. A public inquiry into the project was held early
in 1999.
2.9 Leeds
2.9.1 Light Rail
Leeds adjoins the junction of the M1 and M62
Motorways, with most roads in the City having heavy traffic flows,
particularly at peak periods. Proposals for the introduction of
an LRT system have been under consideration for more than 20 years.
By the early 1990s, it had been decided by the West Yorkshire
PTA, with the support of Leeds City Council, that the most appropriate
system would consist of three main light rail routes, radiating
to the south, north-west and east of the City. The start of construction
work now awaits securing of the requisite public and/or private
funding for building the southern route.
2.9.2. Guided Buses
As an interim measure, schemes are being progressed
for the creation of short lengths of guided busways and high occupancy
vehicle lanes on some of the more congested sections of the main
traffic routes. Initial indications are that these measures can
improve bus service reliability and increase patronage. However,
it does not appear to be clear whether there has been a significant
transfer of private car drivers to public transport.
2.10 Chester
2.10.1. Light Rail
In common with many other historic towns in
shire counties, Chester is both a sub-regional administration,
commercial and shopping centre and a major tourist attraction.
Since 1983, a network of Park and Ride services has been progressively
established, in an endeavour to reduce traffic congestion on radial
routes and within the City centre. As a further development of
this process, a scheme was prepared, by the City and County Councils,
for the construction of a light rail route to connect the existing
Park and Ride site at Chester Zoo and a proposed site at Mannings
Lane to the City centre, using a former rail alignment for the
radial section, with on-street running within the City centre.
2.10.2. Guided Buses
After further investigations, the two Councils
have subsequently decided that guided buses would offer a more
appropriate solution for Chester. The original scheme has been
amended by the omission of the outer section to the Zoo and now
consists of a double-track guided busway along the former rail
route, with the buses running in unguided mode within the City
centre. Application has been made for an Order, in accordance
with the requirements of the Transport and Works Act. If the application
is successful, the route could be operational by 2003. Two further
radial routes are proposed for later implementation.
2.11 Other Schemes
In recent years, privately and publicly promoted
proposals for the introduction of LRT projects have been put forward
for a considerable number of towns and cities. Many have not been
pursued for various reasons. Current and recent proposals that
have not been descibed in the foregoing notes include:
Several schemes for various types of LRT
have been put forward, but no proposal has been finally approved.
Proposals have been made to convert the
local railway between Watford and St. Albans into a guided busway,
with the vehicles running in unguided mode on-street within the
two towns.
Short sections of guided busway have been
introduced to connect adjoining housing areas on a radial bus
route to Kesgrave. In effect, the bus service is able to bypass
congestion on the parallel main road and thus increase the speed
and reliability of the service. An encouraging growth in patronage
has been reported.
A proposal for a trolleybus route using
subsurface wires for guidance has recently been refused a Transport
and Works Order. A separate proposal for a privately sponsored
electric tramway has been submitted for planning consent.
Kent County Council is reported to be considering
a light rail network that would involve using Railtrack lines
between towns, with on-street operation in the centres of Maidstone,
Rochester and Chatham.
A private consortium is proposing a network
of guided bus routes for the town.
CHAPTER THREE—OVERSEAS
3.1 North America
3.1.1. Revival
As the growth in car ownership in North America
has been ahead of that in most European Countries, it is useful
to note that some of the earliest examples of new light rail systems
were introduced in that continent, starting with the opening of
a line in Edmonton in Canada in 1978. The first new light rail
system to open in the U.S.A. was in San Diego in 1981, which
has subsequently been extended. There are now about a dozen second
generation systems in the USA.
3.1.2. Traffic Growth
Most new North American tramways have succeeded
in generating progressive increases in patronage and are actively
progressing extensions or new routes. An example of recent growth
is a 5.4 per cent increase in passengers carried on the Sacremento
system between 1997-98 and 1998-99.
3.1.3. Funding
New light rail systems are usually supported
by Federal grants, which are reported to have amounted to about
$18.5 billion between 1981 and 1995. Powers also exist to raise
local petrol and sales taxes to finance public transport improvements,
although these may have to be approved by local referenda.
3.2 France
3.2.1. Background
In the period following the end of World War
II, French cities and smaller towns adopted similar policies to
those being pursued at that time in the UK, with most tramways
being replace by `more flexible' motor buses. Eventually, only
three urban tramways survived, with single routes in St. Etienne
and Marseilles and two lines radiating from Lille to Roubaix and
Tourcoing. The serious oil crisis that arose in the 1970s encouraged
a radical reassessment of transport policy at the national level,
which resulted in an increased emphasis being placed on electric
traction in an endeavour to reduce dependence on imported oil.
Consequently, extra finance became available for the creation
of new LRT systems.
3.2.2. Nantes
The first new light rail route opened in Nantes
in 1985. As in Manchester, the articulated trams are of high-floor
design. However, these vehicles have subsequently been lengthened
by the insertion of a short lower-floor central section, in order
to facilitate access for mobility impaired passengers. The initial
east-west route has been supplemented by north-south line and
further extensions are being undertaken.
3.2.3. Grenoble
The second new tramway to open in France was
in Grenoble in 1987, this being the first French system to operate
low-floor trams. In Grenoble, great attention was given to fitting
the new tramway into the urban environment and to creating an
integrated public transport system. The Grenoble system has come
to be regarded as a prototype for new tramways not only in France
but also in other parts of Europe including the UK. As in Nantes,
a second line has subsequently been opened.
3.2.4. Other Systems
New light rail routes have recently been opened
in suburban Paris, Rouen and Strasbourg and are under construction
in Montpellier, Orleans and Lyon. The three surviving first generation
tramways have also received new trams.
3.2.5. Alternative Modes
In addition to the widespread revival of light
rail, various rubber-tyred alternatives are being promoted by
vehicle manufactures.
3.2.6 The VAL Metro
The VAL Metro offers a fully automatic alternative
transit system for the movement of large passenger flows. The
initial system has been operating for several years in Lille.
The VAL metro has also been chosen as the main public transport
mode for Toulouse and Rennes.
3.2.7. FundingFrench local authorities
have the power to raise modest payroll taxes on larger employers,
in order to help finance the development of public transport facilities.
3.3 Germany
3.3.1. West Germany
Unlike the situation in the UK and France, there
was no general abandonment of tramways in West Germany in the
immediate post-war period. Although most smaller towns and a few
larger cities, notably West Berlin and Hamburg, closed their tramways,
sufficient systems remained in operation to provide a base market
for a vehicle manufacturing industry. The introduction of articulated
vehicles and the widespread use of prepaid tickets significantly
reduced the costs of tramway operation.
3.3.2. East Germany
In East Germany, in common with most eastern
European countries, the lower rate of growth in car ownership
enabled tramways to be retained even in relatively small towns,
with older vehicles being replaced by new trams, mostly supplied
by the Czech manufacturer TATRA.
3.3.3. Post-Reunification
During the ten year period since reunification,
there has been a steady replacement of older post-war trams by
the new low-floor designs, although the high cost has caused problems
for some operators, particularly in eastern Germany.
3.3.4. Heavy/Light Rail Joint Operation
One of the most promising initiatives is at
Karlsruhe, where direct connections have been made between urban
tramway routes and the mainline railways. This arrangement enables
dual voltage trams to operate on suburban railway lines as well
as on-street, thus allowing tram services to be extended at a
lower cost than would otherwise be possible.This development has
aroused widespread international interest.
3.3.5. Guided Buses
One of the relatively few European guided bus
systems is in Essen where the O-Bahn shares use of segregated
routes with local light rail services.
3.4 Switzerland
3.4.1. General
Although public transport operations in Switzerland
are undertaken by a large number of public and private sector
operators, there is a high level of co-ordination in service provision.
This situation is particularly true in the big cities, which generally
have retained and modernised their tramway systems.
3.4.2. Zurich
Probably the best example of Swiss transport
integration is the City of Zurich, where over 40 separate operators
of railway, tram, trolleybus, bus and shipping services have been
regulated by a co-ordinating authority since 1990. Within the
City, the main line services are operated by trams, with public
service vehicles having full priority at signalised junctions.
The position of all trams is monitored at a central control, using
information obtained from roadside transmitters and sensors on
the moving vehicles. The result of these and other public transport
priority measures, which have been introduced progressively over
the course of the last 25 years, is that Zurich has a higher level
of public transport usage than any other comparable City in Europe.
Local residents, including people employed at a senior level in
business, education and other public services, accept that public
transport is the `normal' way to travel within the City.
3.5 Rest of the World
3.5.1 Western Europe
Except in Spain and Denmark, first generation
tramways have been retained and modernised in most of the larger
cities in other west European countries.
3.5.2 Eastern Europe and Russia
In eastern Europe and Russia, most large and
medium sized cities have retained their tramways, with further
systems being opened into the 1960s and 1970s. The extent to which
the smaller systems will be affected by the projected rapid growth
in car ownership is difficult to predict.
3.5.3 Australia
An extensive tramway system has been retained
in Melbourne. The network has been recently divided into two franchises,
which include specific requirements relating to the purchase of
new rolling stock. Despite the retention of a tramway route, Adelaide
has created an extensive guided bus system, using kerb guidance
on trunk busways, but with the buses in unguided mode on suburban
roads. Sydney and Brisbane are progressing schemes for new light
rail systems, with the first section already in operation in the
former City.
3.5.4 Asia
In Japan, some of the surviving tramways have
received new trams and in Turkey several new light rail systems
have been opened. On Hong Kong island, the street tramway is unique
in still being operated by double-deck vehicles. Elsewhere in
Asia, as in South America and Africa, there are very few tramways
of either the first or second generation!
CHAPTER FOUR—ULTRA
LIGHT RAIL
4.1 General
4.1.1 Definition
For the purposes of this report, Ultra Light
Rail is defined as being passenger tramways with a track gauge
of up to one metre. ULR generally excludes systems that collect
power from on-line power sources (e.g. overhead wires).
4.1.2 Potential Usage
The great advantage of ULR is that systems can
be very adaptable. In addition to operating on-street or along
private rights of way, ULR vehicles can operate safely within
pedestrian areas or inside the curtilages of buildings (e.g. shopping
or leisure centres). The narrower track gauge also facilitates
the use of tighter radii on curves.
4.2 Stored Energy Flywheels
The principle of using stored energy flywheels
as a power source for public service vehicles is long-established.
For example, during the 1950s this method of propulsion was used
for a local bus service in Switzerland. During the last decade,
a British engineering company has developed the Parry Peoplemover
(PPM), using stored energy flywheels as a power source for ULR
vehicles. A series of vehicles has been constructed and demonstrations
have been given at transport exhibitions and for potential clients.
A commercial service using a PPM has been running in the Bristol
Docks area since May 1998 and is reported to have already carried
over 40,000 passengers. Proposals are being considered for introducing
PPMs on ULR services at several other locations. One attractive
proposal is at Llandudno, where the ULR system could not only
serve as a central area passenger distributer but could also provide
a Park and Ride service connecting the town centre to peripheral
parking facilities. If implemented, the ULR system could complement
traffic reduction measures that would increase the resort's attraction
to visitors.
4.3 Battery Power
The use of battery power for operating local
transport services has been the subject of various experiments
during the course of the last 50 years. The difficulties associated
with moving larger road vehicles by battery power are greatly
reduced in respect of ULR trams, as rolling resistance is much
lower on railed vehicles; route lengths for ULR are also relatively
short. Battery operated Minitrams are being actively promoted
by a Midlands design consultancy and schemes for their operation
are being investigated.
CHAPTER FIVE—THE
PROMOTION OF
LIGHT RAPID
TRANSIT DEVELOPMENT
5.1 The Role for Light Rapid Transit
Very large flows, usually those in excess of
about 3,000 passengers per hour, require high capacity transit
systems (eg underground railways). LRT is generally more suited
to intermediate flows, usually those having a maximum movement
of between 500 and 3,000 passengers in any single hour. Buses,
and in certain circumstances ULR, are best suited to the lower
levels of passenger flows. In general the levels of flows suitable
for LRT are found within the conurbations and larger towns and
cities, although they may also occur on routes to large shopping
or recreational complexes.
5.2 Transport Planning
5.2.1 Transport and Land Use
The level of demand for the movement of goods
and people is largely determined by types of land use. The traditional
planning approach to any proposal for a change of land use has
been to estimate the demand for personal travel, then to deduct
a small percentage for non-car users and to provide parking provision
for the rest. It is now accepted by most authorities that this
approach has to be modified, at least in the larger urban areas,
and that a much higher proportion of travellers has to be persuaded
to use public transport, particularly urban railways or LRT where
available.
5.2.2 Attracting Car Owners onto Public Transport
For the owner, a modern car has the advantages
of being readily available, convenient, reliable, comfortable,
protective from the weather and relatively inexpensive to drive.
The task for public transport planners and providers is to offer
services that can compete on most of these grounds. One way of
helping to achieve this aim is to ensure that when major shopping,
leisure and employment facilities are developed public transport
can provide more convenient access than the private car. In this
context, LRT vehicles, particularly trams, have a major advantage,
as they follow predetermined paths and are pollution free, thus
allowing LRT lines to be routed through, or immediately adjacent
to, large building complexes.
5.3 Light Rapid Transit and the Community
5.3.1 Difficulties Caused by Bus Service Deregulation
In contrast to the position in most of continental
Europe, the development of LRT systems in the UK has had to contend
with the difficulties arising from bus service deregulation, as
any new system has to make financial allowance for possible loss
of traffic to competing bus services. These difficulties have
to some extent been alleviated in recent years by the reconsolidation
of bus operations, with a small number of transport conglomerates
now operating most services in the larger urban areas. It is noticeable
that the major operators do not usually compete with each other
and that some are now able to undertake development projects and
experiments, including participation in the running of the new
LRT systems (eg National Express in the West Midlands, Stagecoach
in South Yorkshire, Firstgroup in Croydon). A further development
has been the application by several PTAs to become Centres of
Excellence for Integrated Transport.
5.3.2 Regulation of Service Provision
In order to achieve full integration of public
transport services, including LRT routes and local railways, and
to make them more cost effective, there is an urgent need to review
regulation procedures. The respective roles of the new regional
government bodies, the PTAs, the County Councils, the Traffic
Commissioners and the National Railway Authority will need to
be considered.
5.3.3 The Town Transport Company
In the larger cities and towns outside the conurbations,
there appears to be considerable merit in encouraging the formation
of city/town public transport companies. It is envisaged that
these public transport companies could operate and develop integrated
bus and, where applicable, LRT or ULR systems, with stakeholders
including the current major operator, the unitary or District
Council, local businesses and community groups. This type of organisation
should be able to gain access to funding from a variety of sources.
If given a strong city/town identity, the transport system could
generate a considerable amount of local pride, with consequential
benefits of encouraging passenger loyalty and discouraging anti-social
behaviour on vehicles (graffiti etc.).
5.3.4 Reasons for Choosing Light Rapid Transit
The increased popularity of LRT, particularly
light rail systems, can be attributed to a variety of factors,
of which the most important appear to be:
(1) LRT is cheaper to construct and more
adaptable than conventional railways (underground or segregated
lines), as vehicles can be operated on the public highway as well
as on private rights of way.
(2) LRT is perceived as being more permanent
and reliable than buses.
(3) LRT is considered to be environmentally
and socially "friendly".
(4) Direct running costs are often cheaper
than for buses, when dealing with larger traffic flows.
(5) LRT has the potential for making a significant
contribution towards the achievement of sustainable development
and the implementation of Green Transport Plans, in accordance
with Agenda 21 objectives.
5.4 Cost Reduction
5.4.1 General
If LRT is to achieve the aim of providing an
attractive and viable alternative to the private car, every effort
must be made to ensure that costs are reduced, wherever possible.
5.4.2 Liaison between LRT Operators
There appears to be scope for greater exchange
of information between existing and potential operators regarding
best practice in respect of the construction and operation of
LRT systems. An example of the potential for developing good practice
is the integration of street lighting with the columns supporting
the overhead wires for on-street tramways. In Wolverhampton (Midland
Metro) and on the new Eccles route of Manchester Metrolink, street
lighting units have been mounted on appropriate overhead wire
supporting columns. However, this practice has not been adopted
elsewhere.
5.4.3 On-Street Track Construction
Research has indicated that there may be potential
for using an alternative type of tramrail (LR55), which could
reduce installation costs. Nevertheless, the presence of utility
services beneath the carriageway surface necessitates considerable
extra expenditure for construction of street tramways. In this
context, it is surprising to note the recent government decision
to reduce the utility companies' contributions towards relocation
costs from 18 per cent to 7½ per cent The logical approach
to this matter would appear to be for each relocation to be decided
separately on the basis of the age of the utility service to be
moved. If the service is nearing the end of its expected life-span,
the utility company's contribution should be quite high, say up
to 95 per cent; conversely, if the service is fairly new the company`s
contribution should be very small. There may be scope for further
cost reductions if local authorities could include in their published
Transport Plans all proposals for new on-street tramway alignments.
Utility providers could then be required to take these alignments
into account when renewing or extending their services.
5.4.4 Safety and Disabled Access Requirements
During recent years, there has been a progressive
increase in the statutory requirements for vehicle and infrastructure
measures aimed at reducing the accident risk and facilitating
access for mobility impaired travellers on LRT systems. In addition
to increasing construction cost, these requirements have been
reported to have resulted in loss of revenue arising from delays
in opening routes to public service. In some cases, the increased
costs appear to be excessive in relation to the potential benefits.
In these circumstances, there seems to be a good case for the
operator being compensated accordingly.
CHAPTER SIX—CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusions
1. Light Rapid Transit is defined as including
tramways/light rail lines, guided buses and Ultra Light Rail.
The overwhelming majority of LRT systems are light rail lines
or tramways. (1.2, 1.3)
2. There has been a widespread revival for
LRT during the last 25 years. (1.4)
3. Similar problems have been experienced
in most of the countries where new LRT systems have been introduced.
(1.5)
4. In the UK, deregulation of bus services
and varying financial constraints have created major obstacles
to LRT developments. (2.1)
5. A direct, reliable, high frequency service
can attract a progressively increasing number of passengers. (2.3.2)
6. Good accessibility to passenger destinations
increases traffic potential. (2.3.2, 2.5.2, 2.6.2)
7. The importance of giving priority to
LRT at traffic signals is becoming standard practice. (2.4.2,
2.6.2, 3.4.2)
8. Relatively short sections of guided busway
can generate extra patronage, in certain circumstances. (2.9,
2.11)
9. Co-ordination of services between separate
operators can result in a very attractive and efficient public
transport system, provided that it is maintained as an ongoing
policy. (3.4.2)
10. Clearly defined funding arrangements
have facilitated LRT development in other countries. (3.1.3, 3.2.7)
11. Tramways and light rail systems are
generally perceived as being permanent, reliable and environmentalu
friendly. (5.3.4)
12. LRT, particularly light rail/tramways,
has the potential to make a major contribution towards the achievement
of sustainable development and the implementation of Green Transport
Plans, in accordance with Agenda 21 objectives. (5.3.4)
6.2 Recommendations
(1) New LRT routes should be mainly targetted
at passenger flows within the 500 to 3,000 per hour range. (5.1)
(2) New large scale employment, shopping
and recreational complexes should be designed to be served by
LRT routes, wherever possible. Access to public transport facilities
at these locations should be clearly more convenient and attractive
than access to car parking areas. (5.2.2)
(3) The applications from PTAs to become
Centres of Excellence for Integrated Transport should be supported
and actively promoted (2.3.4, 2.4.4, 5.3.1)
(4) There is an urgent need to review regulation
procedures for public transport services, if effective integration
is to be achieved. (5.3.2)
(5) Encouragement should be given to the
establishment of public transport companies with a strong local
involvement, in the larger cities and towns that are not within
the PTA served conurbations. (5.3.3)
(6) There appears to be considerable scope
for the examination of a range of cost reduction measures that
should assist LRT development in the UK. (5.4)
NOTE: Figures
shown in brackets at the end of individual Conclusions and Recommendations
in Chapter Six refer to the respective sections and paragraphs
earlier in the memorandum.
October 1999
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