Memorandum submitted by Oxford Pedestrian
Association (WTC 58)
WALKING IN TOWNS AND CITIES
Walking is safe, enjoyable, environmentally
benign, and an ideal way for many people to incorporate physical
activity into their daily routine.
THE CONTRIBUTION
OF WALKING
TO:
(i) Urban Renaissance
— Improving communication between citizens
— Increasing the number of people walking
the streets will help to reduce crime1
— More walking means fewer cars, with
immediate environmental benefits in terms of reduced pollution
(both noise and fumes): reducing the stress and dangers of urban
life creates a more attractive and pleasant urban environment.
(ii) Healthy living
Physical activity and mortality
A major review article and recommendation in
1995 stated that approximately 12 per cent of deaths in the United
States are attributable to lack of physical activity, and concluded
that every adult should engage in at least 30 minutes of moderate
exercise on most, preferably all, days of the week. It defined
moderate activity as that which expends four-seven kcal/minute,
such as brisk walking for leisure or transport.2 A review that
categorised the population as sedentary, irregularly active, regularly
active, or vigorously active found that the greatest health benefits
would accrue from increasing the exercise levels of the irregularly
active group.3 A meta-analysis of physical activity in the prevention
of coronary heart disease supported a dose-response relationship
between exercise and protection from coronary heart disease.4
A prospective study of over 13,000 men and women
found that those in the least fit quintile had relative risks
of all-cause mortality of 1.58 (1.32, 1.89) for men, and 1.94
(1.30, 2.88) for women, compared with those in the most fit quintile,
with a strong and graded association between physical fitness
and mortality.5 In a study of 10,269 Harvard alumni those who
were previously sedentary but took up moderate physical activity
during the course of the study had a 41 per cent lower risk of
death from CHD than those who remained sedentary, and added 0.72
years of life (0.14, 1.29).6 An earlier study of 16,936 Harvard
alumni found that those expending less than 2,000 kcal/week had
a relative risk of fatal heart attack of 2.01 compared to those
expending over 2,000 kcal/week (p=0.001).7 A follow-up to this
study found that death rates declined steadily as energy expenditure
increased from below 500 kcal/week to 3,500 kcal/week, with rates
25-33 per cent lower in those expending over 2,000 kcal/week compared
to those expending less than this. By the age of 80 the amount
of additional life attributable to adequate exercise, as opposed
to sedentariness, ranged from one to over two years.8 There has
until recently been a dearth of good evidence for the benefits
of activity in women, but this situation has now been redressed
with several large, high-quality studies showing equivalent benefits
to those found in men.9 10 11
Physical activity and morbidity
In addition to the effects on cardiovascular
morbidity discussed above, regular exercise has been shown to
be beneficial in many conditions12 including diabetes13 14 and
insulin sensitivity,15 16 hypertension,17 18 stroke,19 elevated
blood lipids,20 21 obesity,16 and cancer.22
There is a study evidence to support a relationship
between physical activity and psychological well-being23 24 and
a recent review25 shows that low to moderate physical activity
has beneficial effects on depression, stress,26 mood, self-esteem
and premenstrual syndrome. Physical activity has been shown to
improve cognitive function in the elderly,27 and reduces falls.28
Regular exercise allows elderly people to maintain a reasonable
degree of fitness for activities of daily living,29 and a review
of the relationship between physical activity and hip fractures
found a protective effect of the order of a 50 per cent reduction
in the more physically active subjects.30
The reasons for the decline in walking, and the
main obstacles to encouraging walking and increasing the number
of journeys made on foot
Post-war planning priorities have encouraged
car use, increasing distances between home and shops/employment/entertainment/etc
such that walking becomes impractical
The recent development of out-of-town business
parks, shopping centres, and entertainment complexes often necessitate
motorised transport for access
Even where journeys are potentially walkable,
inconvenient and dangerous street conditions discourage walkers,
eg
— not enough and poorly placed crossings;
— uninviting underpasses;
— railings, ostensibly intended to
protect pedestrians from traffic, restrict choice of route and
often increase journey length;
— narrow, inadequate and poorly-maintained
pavements; and
— proximity of traffic creates an unappealing
environment and intimidates pedestrians.
The result of the above is that pedestrians
feel like second-class citizens; this makes walking something
to endure rather than enjoy.
What should be done to promote walking, etc?
Reducing the volume and speed of traffic throughout
town centres and residential areas, especially in the vicinity
of schools and shopping centres.
Immediate reduction of speed limits in all urban
and residential areas, with an upper limit of 20mph.
Development of more sophisticated, evidence-based,
measures to match speed limits to the local environment, with
research into new methods of control and enforcement.
More effective campaigns to raise awareness
of health benefits of walking, especially targeting school children
and their parents.
Traffic measures to give pedestrians priority
over traffic, eg more generous pedestrian phases at traffic lights,
increased frequency of pedestrian crossings, wider pavements,
etc.
Greater disincentives to car use for short journeys
eg congestion charging within towns, increased parking charges,
reduced capacity of city centre car parks.
Improved integration of public transport systems.
Travel to work by modes other than car should
be generously rewarded by employers; the government could offer
fiscal incentives for this.
What can be learned from good practice both in
England and elsewhere?
We in the United Kingdom could learn from the
many continental and Scandinavian countries with higher urban
walking rates than ours31 32
Whether the relevant professionals have the appropriate
skills and training
Appropriate skills within Local Authority Highways
Departments are lacking, given the culture which has given greater
priority to the needs of motorised traffic for so many years.
Walking schemes are given too low a priority
and receive inadequate funding and officer-time to make a real
impact on the pedestrian environment.
There is an urgent need to appoint properly
trained local authority Pedestrian Officers to give practical
priority to improving the walking environment.
Whether all Govt Depts and local authorities are
taking appropriate measures and whether LTPs, PPG13 and "Encouraging
Walking" are adequate
Oxfordshire's five-year LTP has elicited from
the DETR the comment "the walking strategy is very strong",
but clearly defined practical measures and the necessary funding
are essential to implement the strategy.
If local authority Walking Strategies are to
achieve their aims they need to be given statutory status, and
earmarked funding.
As an example of a local transport strategy
which claims to give priority to pedestrians and seems to be highly
regarded nationally, the Oxford Transport Strategy (OTS) has in
fact only succeeded in improving conditions for pedestrians in
one street so far (Cornmarket), while several areas of the city
centre may be actually worse for walkers than pre-OTS. There have
to date been no measures to promote walking into the city centre.
The national targets for walking, that had been
present in drafts, were dropped from the published version of
Encouraging Walking: advice to local authorities; as a result
the document is inadequate.
Whether greater priority should be given to promote
walking, including greater share of Govt budget and re-allocation
of road space
If walking is to be given the appropriate and
necessary priority it requires:
— Higher levels of local spending
— Mandatory Pedestrian Officers to
ensure proper street planning for foot transport
— Formal recognition of walking as
a valid means of transport.
Central government must empower Local Authorities
to create better conditions for pedestrians, including:
— 20 mph speed limits in town centres
and residential areas
— Measures to reduce traffic volumes
— Wider pavements, and pedestrianised
central areas.
Whether national targets should be set and a National
Strategy published
National targets should be re-instated in an
updated National Walking Strategy to force Local Authorities to
devote more time and money to implementing the necessary reforms,
and according walking the status it requires.
Corinne Grimley Evans, Ray Jones, and Harry Rutter
Oxford Pedestrians Association
5 January 2001
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