APPENDIX 61
Memorandum from the National Foundation
for Education Research
NFER: RELEVANT WORK
AND EXPERTISE
1. The National Foundation for Educational
Research (NFER) is the country's largest independent body specialising
in educational research. Over recent years, NFER has developed
a strong portfolio of work on environmental education (EE)/education
for sustainable development (ESD). This includes:
— reviews/summaries of research—on
the topics of students' environmental learning (Rickinson, 2001;
2002) and education about food, farming and land management (Dillon
et al., forthcoming);
— research and programme evaluation—as
part of the ESRC Global Environmental Change Programme (Morris
and Schagen, 1996), and with Learning through Landscapes;
— research-practice links—a collaborative
project with seven ESD practitioners entitled Making Research
Count in ESD, funded by NFER, BERA and GTC; and
— networking and research development—through
the FERN Environmental Education Research Network, a discussion
forum for UK researchers and research users within the EE/ESD
field (Sanders, 2003).
2. This submission draws upon evidence stemming
from these activities to address four main questions raised by
the Committee.
Question 1—Is lack of public engagement
and understanding a real obstacle to the Government's progress
on its sustainable development agenda?
3. Recent research on school-age students
(Rickinson, 2001; 2002) suggests two obstacles to the Government's
sustainable development agenda. These are:
Young people's limited understandings of sustainability
issues
Surveys of young people in several countries
(including the UK) report generally low levels of factual knowledge
relating to environmental issues. More detailed investigations
of students' ideas about specific environmental phenomena (eg
the greenhouse effect) find there to be considerable misunderstanding
of the science of such issues. Examples include students confusing
ideas about phenomena such as the greenhouse effect and ozone
depletion, or displaying poor understanding of processes such
as melting or recycling.
Students' dissatisfaction with current school-based
environmental education
Across several studies, the main sources of
young people's environmental information are found to be television
and school. Research on young people's educational experiences,
however, suggests that students have mixed views of their environmental
education at school. While environmental education undertaken
with certain teachers or as part of particular action-orientated
programmes is praised, there is criticism voiced in relation to
environmental teaching being concentrated in particular subjects
or lacking practicality and relevance.
Question 2—Is there a need for a national
strategy for education for sustainable development? Would additional
infrastructure be required to deliver a coherent, national strategy?
4. On the basis of our work with teachers,
learners, policy makers, and researchers, we see an urgent need
for a national strategy for ESD. In proposing this, though, we
want to stress the importance of research and researchers in the
development, implementation, and evaluation, of such a strategy.
5. To this end, we feel that a national
strategy for ESD needs to:
— take account of the current strength
of ESD research in the UK—in particular: the considerable
number of researchers at UK universities active in this field;
the activities of the FERN Environmental Education Research Network;
and the contribution made by UK academics to ESD research internationally
(see Research Intelligence);
— emphasise the importance of:
— addressing gaps in the current
evidence base on ESD—we still know very little, for example,
about the processes and experiences of school students' environmental
learning (see Rickinson, 2001, p. 307);
— building capacity for evaluation
and self-evaluation in ESD—as recognised by CEE's new initiative
on "Developing ESD Evaluation Tool/Guidelines", the
question of evaluation and self-evaluation is integral to the
future development of ESD; and
— facilitating connections between
research and practice/policy making—the ESD community needs
to embrace wider developments towards evidence-based practice
in education, not least the creation of forums for researcher-user
dialogue.
Question 3—Are existing awareness raising
Government campaigns such as "Are you doing your bit?"
effective and well targeted? Have past campaigns been evaluated?
How could they be improved in the future?
6. We do not have any relevant research
evidence relating to this question.
Question 4—Are there existing education
programmes relating to sustainable development which might be
considered good practice? Are there elements of successful, strategic
communication programmes in other areas which could be applied
to ESD?
7. We would suggest that lessons can be
learnt from the research literature on environmental/outdoor education.
For example, our summary of recent research on learners and learning
in environmental education argued that:
[While] research evidence will rarely translate
easily into simple ingredients for developing environmental education
practice or policy, the empirical findings contained within this
review could be useful to research users in terms of:
— suggesting helpful and unhelpful
aspects of environmental education from the perspective of learners
and/or learning outcomes; and
— highlighting characteristics of learners
that could have implications for practice and policy in environmental
education." (Rickinson, 2002, p. 3-4).
More detail about both of these can be seen
in the attached document (see pages 3 and 4).
February 2003
REFERENCES
Dillon, J., Rickinson, M., Sanders, D., Teamey,
K. and Benefield, P. (Forthcoming, 2003). Improving the Understanding
of Food, Farming and Land Management Amongst School-Age Children
(DfES Research Report). London: DfES.
Morris, M. with Schagen, I. (1996). Green
Attitudes or Learned Responses? Slough: NFER.
Rickinson, M. (2001). "Learners and learning
in environmental education: a critical review of the evidence"
(Special Issue), Environmental Education Research, 7, 3,
207-320.
Rickinson, M. (2002). "Environmental education:
recent research on learners", TOPIC: Practical Applications
of Research, Issue 27, Item 10. Slough: NFER.
Sanders, D. (2003). Student Voices, Teacher
Choices. Proceedings of a FERN/CPG Seminar. Unpublished Report:
Chelsea Physic Garden, London.
AUTHORS
Dr Mark Rickinson. Senior Research Officer,
NFER, The Mere, Upton Park, Slough. SL1 2DQ. Tel: 01753 574 123
Email: m.rickinson@nfer.ac.uk
Ms Dawn Sanders. Senior Research Officer, NFER,
The Mere, Upton Park, Slough. SL1 2DQ. Tel: 01753 574 123 Email:
d.sanders@nfer.ac.uk
Ms Marian Morris. Principal Research Officer,
NFER, The Mere, Upton Park, Slough. SL1 2DQ. Tel: 01753 574 123
Email: m.morris@nfer.ac.uk
Environmental Education: Recent Research
on Learners and Learning
Mark Rickinson of the NFER summarises the findings
of a review of recent research on students and their learning
in school-based environmental education. He concludes with a consideration
of possible implications for practitioners and policy makers.
BACKGROUND
The difference between a sustainable or a chaotic
future is learning (Stephen Sterling (1))
The past 30 years have seen growing international
recognition that the challenges associated with environmental
degradation and sustainable development have important implications
for, and connections with, education and schooling. The concept
of environmental education is now widespread in national educational
policies, curriculum documents, curriculum development initiatives
and conservation strategies. In England, for example, one of the
requirements of the revised National Curriculum is for schools
to:
develop [pupils'] awareness and understanding
of and respect for, the environments in which they live, and secure
their commitment to sustainable development at a personal, local,
national and global level (2).
It was against the curriculum backdrop that
the NFER decided to undertake a review of recent research on students
and their learning in school-based environmental education. This
article presents a summary of the findings of this review (3),
both in terms of characteristics of the current evidence base
and key messages about learners and learning. It starts with a
brief outline of the review's aims and methods, and ends with
a consideration of possible implications for practitioners and
policy makers.
AIMS AND
METHODS
This project reviewed over 100 empirical studies,
published between 1993 and 1999, of learners and/or learning in
primary or secondary school environmental education. The purpose
was to examine the nature and quality of current research evidence
on students and their learning in environmental education.
In its methods, the review sought to be systematic,
comprehensive and analytical. The findings are based on careful
scrutiny of over 100 journal articles, books and reports, identified
using a variety of search methods (ie bibliographic databases,
manual journal searches and researcher networks).
THE EVIDENCE
BASE
The evidence base on learners and learning in
environmental education was found to have the following characteristics:
— it is considerable in size and seems
to be growing through time;
— it comprises six main concentrations
or nodes of evidence, three of which are well established and
three of which may be regarded as emergent (see Box 1);
— it has a predominance of quantitative,
rather than qualitative, evidence, but this is changing as new
foci (eg students' perceptions of nature) emerge, bringing different
methodological approaches and conceptual frames;
— it provides more information about
students' environmental knowledge and attitudes than about their
educational experiences and preferences, and more about learning
outcomes than learning processes.
Box 1: Six concentrations of evidence
Established nodes (with considerable research
evidence):
— students' environmental knowledge;
— students' environmental attitudes
and behaviours;
— students' environmental learning
outcomes.
Emerging nodes (with less research evidence):
— students' perceptions of nature;
— students' experiences of learning;
— students' influences on adults.
THE KEY
MESSAGES
This section summarises the key messages for
each of the six nodes within the evidence base.
Students' environmental knowledge
Surveys of young people in several countries
report generally low levels of factual knowledge relating to environmental
issues. More detailed investigations of students' ideas about
specific environmental phenomena (eg the greenhouse effect) find
there to be considerable misunderstanding of the science of such
issues. Examples include students confusing ideas about phenomena
such as the greenhouse effect and ozone depletion, or displaying
poor understanding of processes such as melting or recycling.
Across several studies, the main sources of
young people's environmental information are found to be television
and school. Other sources include the print media, family and
friends, environmental experiences and environmental non-governmental
organisations (NGOs). There is some evidence to suggest that students'
environmental knowledge and information sources can be affected
by gender, age, socio-economic grouping, geographical location
and schooling.
Students' environmental attitudes and behaviours
Surveys of young people in various countries
report generally positive environmental attitudes—ie greater
agreement with pro- rather than anti-environmental sentiments.
However, several studies find students to be less environmentally
conscious in relation to certain issues, in particular, those
linked to their own lives and material aspirations.
In terms of pro-environmental behaviours, there
is evidence that young people have some involvement in practices
relating to energy conservation, recycling and (less commonly)
"green consumerism". Most studies, however, emphasise
the need for these behaviours to increase, and to encompass consumption
practices and social political actions, as well as conservation
practices.
Evidence on influencing factors in relation
to young people's environmental attitudes and behaviour includes
gender, age, socio-economic grouping, geographical location and
schooling. In relation to gender, for example, findings from several
studies show girls to be more pro-environmental than boys in their
attitudes and behaviours.
Students' environmental learning outcomes
Some educational interventions, including residential
field courses and school-based initiatives, can effect change
in students' environmental knowledge and/or attitudes and (in
a few cases) behaviour. Effects, however, tend to be measured
in the short term, and the evidence on their durability over time
is not clear.
Little is known about how and why programmes
are able to bring about certain kinds of learning outcomes. The
small number of studies that have attempted to explore this suggest
that:
— learning outcomes can be facilitated
by certain processes such as role modelling and direct experience
on outdoor courses, and collaborative group discussion in classroom
lessons;
— programme duration, location and
preparation/follow-up work can affect outcomes;
— different kinds of programmes can
affect learners' environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour
in different ways; and
— different kinds of students (eg those
with more or less environmental interest) can be affected differently
by environmental learning experiences.
Students' perceptions of nature
Studies in Australia, the UK and USA suggest
that young people perceive "nature" as natural living
things with minimal or no human interference, and as a relatively
static entity. Three recurring themes expressed by young people
are of nature as a place for leisure and solitude, as potentially
dangerous and frightening, and as being under threat.
While at a preliminary stage, there are findings
which suggest that students' perceptions and constructions of
nature may be shaped by influences such as their socio-economic
setting, experiences of nature and exposure to images and ideas
within the media.
Students' experiences of learning
A small number of studies suggest that students
have mixed views of their environmental education at school. While
environmental education undertaken with certain teachers or as
part of particular action-oriented programmes is praised, there
is criticism voiced in relation to environmental teaching being
concentrated in particular subjects or lacking practicality and
relevance.
More detailed investigations of students in
particular environmental learning situations suggest that learners
can be highly individual in their responses to such experiences.
The emerging picture is of students as critical consumers, rather
than passive recipients, of environmental curricula.
Students' influences on adults
Studies of intergenerational influence suggest
that students, after participating in environmental activities,
are capable of influencing the environmental attitudes and/or
behaviours of their parents. In other words, environmental education
programmes can have an impact not only on students, but also indirectly
on parents.
Such influence, however, is not an automatic
process, and appears to be facilitated by programmes being enjoyable
for students, including tasks that can invlove parents and dealing
with actual local problems, in addition to students and parents
having an interest in the environment and good communication patterns.
IMPLICATIONS FOR
PRACTITIONERS AND
POLICY MAKERS
Perhaps the most important outcome of this review
is its demonstration of the considerable amount of research activity
that is currently occurring in the area of learners and learning
in environmental education. The review highlights a number of
topics relating to school students for which research evidence
is currently available. In considering possible implications,
however, it should be recognised that research evidence will rarely
translate easily into simple ingredients for developing environmental
education practice or policy. Having said that, I would argue
that the empirical findings contained within this review could
be useful to research users in terms of:
(1) suggesting helpful and unhelpful aspects
of environmental education from the perspective of learners and/or
learning outcomes; and
(2) highlighting characteristics of learners
that could have implications for practice and policy in environmental
education.
1. Helpful and unhelpful aspects of environmental
education
The research discussed in the review may help
to suggest certain aspects of environmental education that are
either helpful or unhelpful from the perspective of learners and/or
learning outcomes. The research on students' ideas about global
environmental issues, for example, identifies a number of aspects
of environmental teaching that may be a hindrance to students'
understanding of such issues. These include:
— use of general terms such as "pollution"
which, it is argued, can hinder students distinguishing between
different pollutants and environmental problems;
— abstract nouns such as "habitat
loss" in textbooks which, due to their abstract and agentless
nature, are found to have less salience for students and so can
be easily overlooked;
— schematic diagrams illustrating the
greenhouse effect using arrows approaching the earth which, it
is argued, can be misread by students as showing the greenhouse
effect being caused by holes in the ozone layer allowing more
solar radiation into the earth's atmosphere;
— studying environmentally responsible
behaviours, such as recycling, without considering exactly how
and why such practices are environmentally beneficial as this
can result in "blurred knowledge" among primary school
children; and
— learning about scientific explanations
for environmental phenomena, such as the timing of spring, which
reportedly can lead students to give up more common-sense explanations
that may, in fact, be more helpful to them in their daily lives.
In highlighting these arguments, however, I
would add that they each make assumptions about the nature of
environmental teaching, which may or may not be shared by individual
research users coming to consider their possible implications.
The research on learning outcomes, meanwhile,
proposes that certain aspects of environmental education programmes
can be helpful in terms of effecting positive changes in students'
environmental knowledge, attitudes or behaviours. These include:
— outdoor residential field courses
lasting for a week rather than one or two days;
— out-of-school visits to local zoos
and public gardens encompassing preparatory and follow-up work;
— school-based programmes including
elements of community and parental involvement;
— environmental curricula focusing
on actual local environmental issues as opposed to envisaged or
construed ones; and
— processes such as role modelling
and direct experience in outdoor courses, and collaborative group
discussion in classroom lessons.
All of these characteristics, however, need
to be considered in relation to the nature, aims and context of
the particular programmes that were evaluated. That is, they are
not necessarily generalisable ingredients for success for any
programme of environmental education, but characteristics that
yielded differences for particular programmes.
2. Characteristics of learners
A second way in which the research evidence
may be useful for research users is by providing information about
characteristics of learners that could have implications for practice
and policy in environmental education. A general point that emerges
from this review is that students come to environmental education
with a whole host of existing environmental and educational perspectives.
The ways in which these play out in relation to particular environmental
learning situations would seem an important issue for practitioners
and curriculum developers in environmental education. In terms
of specifics, consideration might be given to the fact that:
— young people, including those of
primary school age, are capable of sophisticated thinking in relation
to environmental issues;
— individual students including boys
and girls and older and younger students, may differ considerably
in their attitudes towards, concerns about and perceptions of
the environment and nature (several studies, for example, suggest
that girls are more aware of immediate, local problems relating
to human healthy, while boys focus more on longer-term and more
abstract issues);
— students can differ in their curricular
and pedagogical preferences, and thus may respond to different
kinds of environmental education activities in varying and individual
ways; and
— certain aspects of global environmental
issues, such as their processes, distinctions and interconnections,
appear difficult for students to understand, and can become the
source of considerable confusion and misperceptions.
The issue emerging from all of the above statements
is how these characteristics of learners might be taken into account
in teaching and learning practices within environmental education.
This is particularly important when one considers that all of
the above characteristics may differ in significant ways between
students and their teachers. As Payne (1998) asserts:
Environmental educators would do well to consider
learners' views about "nature" and the "environment"
[ . . . ]. Without an adequate understanding [of such views] teachers
may find themselves promoting a view, or experience of nature
that has a lot, little or nothing to do with children's daily
living circumstances (4).
POSTSCRIPT: THE
NEED FOR
COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH
REVIEWS IN
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
A key point that emerges from this project is
that the practical implications of the above research evidence
will only become clear through greater dialogue between researchers
and research users. In other words, there is a need for what Bassey
calls "user reviews". Bassey draws a distinction between
an academic review: "a critical and analytical account of
the state of public knowledge of the topic", aimed primarily
at other researchers, and user review: "a form of professional
paper which is devised and written by researchers and users working
together", with the aim of critically informing the thinking
of a particular policy-maker or practitioner audience (5).
Drawing on Bassey's ideas, plans are in progress
to use this review as the basis for a collaborative project involving
a small group of teachers and researchers. This project, entitled
"Education for Sustainable Development—Making Research
Count", will develop an innovative document and website for
teachers on the implications emerging from the review for the
teaching of education for sustainable development within schools.
REFERENCES
1. Sterling, S. (2001). Sustainable Education:
Revisioning Learning and Change, Dartington: Green Books,
p 10.
2. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority
(1999). The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers
in England. Key Stages 3 and 4. London: QCA, p 11.
3. The complete version of the review is
published as: Rickinson, M. (2001). "Learners and learning
in environmental education: a critical review of the evidence",
Environmental Education Research, 7, 3, 207-320.
4. Payne, P. (1988). "Children's conceptions
of nature", Australian Journal of Environmental Education,
14, 19-26.
5. Bassey, M. (2000). "Reviews of educational
research", Research Intelligence, 71, 22-9.
The author is keen to hear from any practitioners
who might be interested to know more about this project during
the academic year 2001-02.
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