Memorandum submitted by the Department
for International Development (DFID)
INTRODUCTION
1. Migration is one of the most significant
domestic, development and foreign policy issues. Movements by
people around the globe—within countries, within regions
and internationally—are rising and becoming ever more diversified.
The process in recent years is inextricably bound up with globalisation,
linked to other flows of trade and finance, and closer economic
integration. But although migration is the human dimension of
globalisation, it has been relatively less well studied and analysed
compared to the other types of flows. Migration can bring benefits
to both sending and receiving countries as well as to migrants
themselves, but there are also risks. There is growing recognition
that the process needs to be managed in a cooperative way in order
to maximise the benefits and minimise the costs to the countries
and people concerned.
2. Following the Government's White Paper,
"Eliminating World Poverty: making globalisation work
for the poor", published in December 2000, DFID has been
working to deepen its knowledge of the issues surrounding migration
as they relate to pro-poor change. The aim is to improve understanding
within DFID of the impact of migration at various levels and in
different contexts (internal, south-south and south-north) on
poverty; and to develop a comprehensive approach to migration
issues. This will help sharpen and strengthen DFID's country work,
as well as equipping DFID to play a more effective role in inter-Departmental
discussions on policy initiatives. It will also support the Government's
efforts to provide a more balanced debate on migration issues,
especially in relation to its policy of managed migration.
3. This note is organised as follows. Section
A briefly described the nature and scale of current migration
flows. Section B outlines the main policy issues relating to migration
and development. Section C describes DFID's interactions with
other Departments in Whitehall and internationally on migration
issues. Section D concludes with an overview of priorities for
future work.
A. NATURE AND
SCALE OF
MIGRATION FLOWS
4. Migration flows can be characterised
in a number of different ways. One relates to geographical scale:
international, intraregional and internal. Last year the United
Nations estimated that in 2000, there were 175 million people
living in a country other than where they were born, equivalent
to about 2.9% of the world's population and more than double the
number since 1975. The largest number of international migrants
was living in Europe (56 million), Asia (50 million) and North
America (41 million). Roughly 60% live in the more developed regions
and 40% in developing countries. Approximately 16 million of the
175 million international migrants in 2000 were refugees, the
bulk of which were located in developing countries (roughly 9
million in Asia and 4 million in Africa). Annex A gives a statistical
snapshot of the main source and host countries.
5. The quality of statistical data on migration
is relatively poor for all types of migration, certainly in comparison
to data available on trade and financial flows. This is especially
true for internal migration. But flows between and within developing
countries outweigh international flows (south-north). It has been
estimated, for example, that China has a floating population of
120 million, while migration within India (seasonal or permanent)
may reach 200 million a year.
6. People move for a host of different reasons.
One common classification is whether the movement is "voluntary",
in search of better livelihood opportunities, either within the
country or abroad; or "forced", escaping conflict, repression,
human rights abuse or war. Forced migration can result in internal
displacement of people, often on a large scale, or cross-border
movements as refugees or asylum seekers. But in complex emergencies,
it is often difficult to make clear distinction between "voluntary"
and "forced" migration. A recent study by Castles and
others[1]
underscored that there are close links between underdevelopment
and conflict; and political upheaval, economic difficulties and
that conflicts often occur simultaneously, giving rise to multiple
motivations for moving and blurring the distinction between economic
migrants and those seeking protection.
7. Another way of classifying migrants is
by length of stay. Moves may be temporary, seasonal, circular
or permanent. Globalisation goes hand in hand with the spread
of information and communications technology and transportation
revolution enabling people to travel further and at lower cost,
to obtain information about opportunities elsewhere and to maintain
contacts with their families and home communities. These factors
are transforming the nature of migration, with temporary or circulatory
flows much more frequent than in the past. Many more countries
are involved, resulting in an increasingly complex web of diverse
communities around the world.
8. Networks and family or community ties
which bind sending and receiving countries are crucial in explaining
the strength and persistence of certain migratory flows. Historical,
cultural or linguistic factors help explain the presence of diaspora
communities. When the number of migrants reaches a certain level,
the risks of migration are reduced, resulting in additional migration.
This is sometimes termed the family or friends effect. In this
way, networks can become self-perpetuating, even if the original
reasons for the migratory flow no longer apply.
B. MAIN POLICY
ISSUES RELATING
TO MIGRATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
9. The interrelationships between migration
and development are complicated and difficult to untangle. Factors
such as poverty, population growth, unemployment or environmental
disasters may act as "push" factors causing migration.
Sustainable livelihoods approaches emphasise that to cope with
risks, poor people diversity their livelihoods. Migration can
be an important element in reducing the vulnerability of households.
Movements can be short-term seasonal or circular, rural to rural,
rural to urban or urban to rural; of they can be cross-border
or international.
10. Mobility for the poorest people is often
constrained because they are unable to meet the costs involved
in migration. It is sometimes argued that the poor do not have
the means to migrate, but this overlooks the seasonal and other
forms of migration which they follow as part of their livelihoods
strategies. Internal flows, characterised by the poorer migrants,
are probably the greatest volume but tend not to be captured in
official statistics (where they even exist). A key issue, therefore,
is how to increase the "visibility" of these flows so
that their contribution to poverty reduction can be more readily
assessed.
11. Another misperception is that increased
living standards will result in lower levels of migration. Evidence
suggests that migration rates in the poorest countries tend to
be less than in lower middle-income countries, and that migration
rises until a certain income threshold is reached. This is because
increased income is not immediately matched by more opportunities
domestically. This phenomenon is known as the "migration
hump". But there are many other factors at play, with the
existence of networks among the most powerful explanatory variables
explaining high levels of migration.
Brain drain; brain gain or brain circulation
12. International migration of skilled labour
has been boosted by globalisation and the revolution in information
and communications technology. Increasingly, workers from developing
countries are helping to meet the demand for skilled labour shortages
in industrialised economies. This has given rise to renewed concerns
about the potential impact of "brain drain" on growth
and development prospects in countries which experience a high
outflow of skilled labour. The UK's White Paper on globalisation
in 2000 noted, for example, that developed countries are responding
to shortages of health personnel by actively recruiting staff
from low- and middle-income countries. Although there are benefits
to individuals—in terms of career opportunities and earnings—and
to sending countries, in the form of significant remittances and
enhanced skills brought back by returning migrants, these outflows
can have detrimental effects as well. The White Paper suggested
that developed countries need to be more sensitive to the impact
of skills drain on developing countries, and to ensure that policies
do not worsen skill shortages in those countries.
13. In 2001, DFID commissioned the International
Labour Organisation (ILO) to carry out a research programme on
the issue to enable DFID to participate more actively and constructively
in policy debates on skilled migration. A series of thematic and
country studies was produced together with a synthesis report[2].
The latter was presented as part of a seminar series on the future
of UK migration which the Institute for Public Policy Research
(IPPR) held in 2001-02.
14. The key finding of the research was
that the positive feedback effects can often outweigh any initial
negative impacts of skill migration. The challenge was to maximise
the benefits through appropriate policies: encouraging return
migration, tapping diaspora networks and promoting the productive
use of remittances.
15. Another facet of labour migration relates
to low-skilled workers. Even in middle-income countries such as
Malaysia or Argentina, migrants provide a growing share of the
workforce in agriculture, construction and service industries.
These flows include illegal or undocumented workers involving
smuggling and trafficking operations controlled by organised crime.
Policies introduced by host countries frequently focus on the
high skill end of the spectrum, and do not adequately respond
to the demand for low skilled and seasonal labour. The UK Government
has begun to address this issue by broadening entry routes to
the UK labour market through such measures as reform of the seasonal
agricultural workers scheme and the introduction last year of
sector-based short-term work schemes for hospitality and food
manufacturing workers.
Recruitment of health service professionals
16. The ILO research on skilled labour migration
highlighted that the impacts can be positive or negative; and
can vary by country, by sector and over time. One area of particular
concern to developing countries has been the loss of medical and
nursing personnel who are recruited to work in health care systems
in developed countries. The UK's White Paper on globalisation
in 2000 stressed that developed countries should take account
of the potential negative impacts of the skills drain resulting
from active recruitment drives. DFID has been working with the
Department of Health to ensure that active recruitment of healthcare
professionals to the National Health Service (NHS) takes place
in developing countries only where there is an agreement between
the government of that country and the government of the United
Kingdom.
17. The Department of Health has published
a Code of Practice for NHS employers involved in international
recruitment of healthcare professionals (2001). Key principles
of this Code are that developing countries should not be targeted
for recruitment unless bilateral agreements have been reached
with the governments concerned and that extensive opportunities
exist within the NHS for individuals in terms of training and
education and the enhancement of clinical practice. To date, agreements
have been reached with India and the Philippines (as well as Spain),
which have indicated that they are content for the UK to work
with them in international recruitment of healthcare staff. Memoranda
of Understanding have also been signed with South Africa and Indonesia
to ensure the ethical recruitment of healthcare personnel from
those countries.
18. A recent joint study on international
nurse mobility by the WHO, International Council of Nurses and
Royal College of Nursing[3]
reported a strong upward trend in inflows to the UK, with the
Philippines prominent as a source country followed by Australia,
South Africa and India. The report pointed to a variety of push
and pull factors underlying the flows: low pay, poor working conditions,
personal security concerns in countries experiencing conflict
or economic instability; and the impact of HIV/AIDS in source
countries; versus better pay, career prospects and working conditions
in destination countries, coupled with active recruitment efforts.
The main driver was shortages in developed countries. The authors
suggested that one strategy to change the dynamics must be to
improve conditions in the health sector in developing countries,
an area which DFID is supporting through a range of interventions.
Bilateral agreements to manage the flow also offer a way of mitigating
the impacts while maximising opportunities for individual migrants.
For example, the Memorandum of Understanding with South Africa
will enable the exchange of information, advice and expertise
between that country and the UK, which will be of mutual benefit
to both countries. DFID will also continue to cooperate closely
with the Department of Health to monitor the functioning of the
Code of Practice.
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)
19. Since its establishment in 1995, the
World Trade Organisation (WTO) has made progress in the liberalisation
of trade in services under the General Agreement on Trade in Services
(GATS). But progress has been slower in relation to services supplied
through the "temporary movement of natural persons"
(individual service suppliers). This is labelled "Mode-4",
referring to the GATS classification of the various modes of delivery.
In contrast to the other three modes (cross-border supply, consumption
abroad and commercial presence), WTO market access commitments
under Mode-4 are relatively restricted. This is an area where
developing countries have a comparative advantage; but many barriers
exist to the free movement of labour, such as visa quotas, entry
formalities which developed countries have been slow to dismantle.
At the same time, the changing demographic profile in developed
countries, with ageing populations, shrinking workforces and growing
skills gaps in key sectors, have altered the context in which
the negotiations are taking place.
20. A number of studies have drawn attention
to the potential benefits to both developed and developing countries
which would accrue from a progressive relaxation of the barriers
to trade. One study[4],
for example, suggested that if developed countries were to raise
their quotas on temporary workers to a level equivalent to 3%
of their labour force, the total gains (shared by both developed
and developing countries) would exceed $150 billion, half as large
again as the gains expected from liberalisation of all remaining
trade restrictions on goods. The UK's policy stance on this issue,
widely viewed as being among the most progressive within WTO,
was developed through a process of interdepartmental consultation
in which DFID played an active role.
Remittances
21. Remittances are an increasingly important
source of financial flows to developing countries. The World Bank's
2003 Global Development Finance Report[5]
indicated that officially recorded flows have risen to $88 billion
a year, well in excess of official development assistance ($51
billion), and second only to foreign direct investment (FDI).
The figure is much higher if flows through informal channels are
taken into account. (A UN study in 2002 estimated that these could
be in the order of $100-300 billion a year). Remittances tend
to be a much more stable form of finance than FDI and portfolio
investments, which can be volatile; and they remain steady, or
even increase, during times of acute economic hardship in the
receiving country. A further characteristic is that they directly
reach the poor, empowering them to determine their own development.
Studies by ILO show that in Bangladesh, remittance account for
more than half the household income of families who receive them.
In Senegal, the figure is reported to be as high as 90%.
22. Remittances are also a significant source
of foreign exchange for some of the poorest countries. In some
small economies, they represent a large share of GDP and of export
earnings; in Lesotho, for example, they account for over 50% of
GDP.
23. These features of remittances have encouraged
Governments to explore policies designed to increase the flow
and help make them a more effective development tool. The Philippines
offers special incentives and tax breaks for remittances. Other
governments encourage migrants to make greater use of formal financial
services. A sound macroeconomic and investment climate is crucial.
Migrants themselves need a stronger voice in how funds should
be invested. Efforts to build confidence in formal banking institutions
are being explored; as well as other ways to harness diasporas
and migrant associations to help in the development of their home
communities.
24. The cost of transferring funds can be
high. But new technology, coupled with growing competition as
commercial banks enter the market, is driving down costs. They
are projected to fall from about 15% of the transfer value on
small transactions three years ago to 5% in the near future.
25. In October 2003, DFID in partnership
with the World Bank and the International Migration Policy Programme
(IMP) organised a two-day conference on remittances. This was
the first global meeting of its kind on this topic, and attracted
over 100 participants from 42 countries, including policy makers,
representatives of central and private banks, multilateral and
bilateral donors, NGOs, service providers, academics and others.
The meeting acknowledged that remittances have a positive effect
on poverty, but concluded that agencies engaged in the issue need
to understand better the patterns and nature of migration and
remittance flows as well as the needs and aspirations of diasporas
around the world.
26. The meeting also concluded that Government
regulators and donors need to strike a careful balance between,
on the one hand, financial transparency and preventing the financing
of terrorism and, on the other, the need to maximise access to
remittance services for as many poor people as possible. A nuanced
approach is required, avoiding heavy-handed measures on anti-money
laundering that have negative repercussions for the poor. The
conference also emphasised the need to build-up domestic financial
infrastructure in developing countries to facilitate the flow
of remittances to remote poor areas. This could be achieved through
partnerships between banks and non-bank financial institutions,
micro-finance organisations, postal bank networks and so on.
27. Following the conference, the World
Bank has agreed to consider establishing a task force together
with DFID, other agencies and the IMP to take forward follow up
work. This would include creating a website to share information
and knowledge, developing guidelines for institutions active in
the field and improving official data collection and dissemination
on migration and remittance flows.
Internal migration
28. Migration is a major cause and effect
of urban-rural change, as poor people increasingly move between
rural and urban areas to maximise opportunities and reduce risks.
The rural poor may choose to migrate for a number of reasons,
for example, the demand for cheap labour in different urban centres,
desire to break from traditional cultural roles and so on. Such
movements facilitate flows of information, ideas, lifestyles,
remittances and investment; development strategies need to recognise
the role of mobility in expanding choices available to the poor
across the rural-urban continuum. But policy development is frequently
hampered by misperceptions which treat urban and rural settings
as separate entities and new migrants as a problem.
29. One mistaken view is that rural-urban
migration must be halted to prevent the growth of large cities
with unplanned, informal settlements. But urban growth in many
areas is primarily as a result of urban natural population growth.
Squatter settlements grow and expand where municipal authorities
lack the capacity and political will to plan for the needs of
poor migrants and the urban poor. Migrants participate in urban
labour markets, contributing significantly to urban economies,
which produce a major share of GDP.
30. While rural-urban migration is often
dominant, other forms of internal migration occur. Many poor people
diversify their livelihoods by migrating to work on plantations
or for larger landholders, or in off-farm rural employment such
as construction or services.
31. But although migration and remittances
are important processes through which low-income households can
escape poverty, this is rarely acknowledged in national poverty
reduction strategies. A recent review of 48 poverty reduction
strategy papers (PRSPs) found that 21 made no mention of migration;
nine saw it as a cause of "brain drain", while others
saw internal migration in negative terms, as a cause of urban
poverty, the spread of HIV/AIDS or other social ills. DFID intends
to work with other development partners for a more balanced treatment
of migration issues within national poverty reduction strategies
or their equivalents.
Gender
32. Women account for a high share of migration
flows—a persistent feature of flows since at least the 1960s[6].
The UN has estimated that about half of international migrants
in 2000 were female. In some contexts—for example, internal
displacement or refugee flows, or in domestic service flows within
south east Asia or to the Gulf—they account for a much higher
share. They can be exposed to risk and exploitation; but migration
can also offer the potential for empowerment where the status
of women is low. Women can have an important voice in decisions
related to migration, determining who moves and when. Studies
suggest that they tend to remit a higher proportion of their income
on a regular basis, and thus make a potentially greater contribution
to household income in the communities of origin. Women migrants
are often the main source of family support in such circumstances.
Attempts by a number of South Asian governments to restrict migration
of unskilled female workers has driven flows underground, making
them more vulnerable to exploitation. It is important, therefore,
to take fuller account of the gender dimension when assessing
the potential contribution of migration to poverty reduction.
Migration policy development in Asia
33. Many of these themes arose at a Regional
conference which DFID organised in Bangladesh June 2003 on "Migration,
development and pro-poor policy choices in Asia". The purpose
of the Asia migration work was to maximise the benefits and minimise
the risks of migration to poor people, developing and transition
countries. This was done through participatory stakeholder workshops
which fed into country syntheses papers for Vietnam, Pakistan,
India, China and Bangladesh. Eight other issues papers were prepared
to inform discussion at the conference. There was strong ministerial
support for this conference within Bangladesh and good participation
from the senior government officials from the five countries.
The main conclusion was that the relationship between migration
and poverty was critical, needed to be better understood and that
judicious policy interventions could maximise the benefits and
minimise the risks to men and women who migrate internally and
internationally. The conference noted that internal migration
within Asia is a strong contributor to pro-poor development. The
conference proceedings are being published and papers have been
widely disseminated[7].
Following the conference the governments of Bangladesh and Pakistan
have taken active steps to explore issues raised in the conference.
Bangladesh is considering reviewing laws that discriminate against
women and Pakistan is holding a high level workshop on internal
migration. As part of the follow-up, DFID is planning to support
a ministerial meeting in Manila which the International Organisation
on Migration (IOM) is organising in 2004 as well as other activities
in cooperation with IOM.
Conflict, complex emergencies and forced migration
34. Factors, which can lead to sudden, large-scale
movements of people, include conflicts and humanitarian crises,
either natural or man-made disasters. These are often labelled
"complex emergencies". Various kinds of movement can
occur: internal displacement (moving within the country of origin);
and cross-border movements by refugees and asylum seekers seeking
safety either in neighbouring countries or elsewhere. The choice
of where to move is dependent on many variables: the level of
information available to individuals and families, the amount
of pre-warning and perception of risk; level of education, skills
and financial resources; social networks; age and gender. In general,
those with better education and skills with money and connections
are likely to travel furthest and fastest.
35. Africa in particular has been characterised
by "mass influx" events. Donors can help in the short
run by offering immediate humanitarian assistance; and in the
longer term by supporting conflict resolution programmes and helping
governments tackle the underlying causes of complex emergencies.
The Africa Conflict Prevention Pool was set up in 2001 as a joint
initiative of DFID, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the
Ministry of Defence to improve coordination on conflict prevention
and peacekeeping in the region. In contrast, DFID has taken a
lead in developing conflict assessment tools to help in analysing
the complex factors and dynamics underlying these situations.
Role of diaspora networks in development
36. As well as contributing remittances,
diasporas are a source of skills, knowledge and ideas for their
home communities. They often perform valuable advocacy and fund-raising
work, especially in response to emergency situations or conflict
resolution efforts. A number of initiatives have been launched
to draw on the experience of diaspora communities to help support
development aims in their home countries. The UN Development Programme
(UNDP), for example, has set up a programme called "Transfer
of Knowledge through Expatriate Nationals (TOKTEN)". The
International Organisation on Migration (IOM) has set up a capacity-building
programme, "Migration for Development in Africa" (MIDA),
which aims to mobilise the skills of African nationals abroad
for the benefit of Africa's development. Another African initiative
is the South African Network of Skills Abroad (SANSA). The African
Union has recognised the value of such approaches and has invited
African diasporas to actively take part in the region's development.
People smuggling and trafficking
37. The rise in irregular or undocumented
migration in recent years has been accompanied by the growth of
extensive operations aimed at smuggling or trafficking people,
often under the control of organised crime. DFID, in coordination
with other Departments, is supporting efforts to combat such flows.
In south east Asia, DFID is supporting the International Labour
Organisation's work to tackle the trafficking of women and children
in the Mekong region. In the Balkans, DFID has supported work
by the International Organisation for Migration training the various
agencies dealing with the victims of trafficking, including the
police, social workers and legal profession.
International legal instruments
38. Migration is generally treated in international
law from two perspectives: the sovereign right of states to determine
who enters and resides in their territory; and the rights of individual
migrants to protection and fair treatment. A number of international
agreements cover migrants' rights, including ILO Convention no
97 (migration for employment, adopted in 1949), which the UK ratified
in 1951, and ILO Convention no 143 (on the treatment of migrant
workers, 1975). In 1990, the UN adopted the International Convention
on the Protection of Rights of all Migrant workers and Members
of their Families. The Government has no plans to ratify this
Convention. The scope is wider than the UK's existing immigration
laws. No EU member states are signatories; and most of the 12
current signatories are countries of origin of migrant workers.
The Government considers that it has already struck the right
balance between the need for immigration control and the protection
of the interests and rights of migrant workers who already have
the protection of the UK's existing commitments under international
law.
C. DFID INTERACTIONS
WITH OTHER
WHITEHALL DEPARTMENTS,
THE EUROPEAN
COMMUNITY AND
INTERNATIONAL ACTORS
39. Over the past few years, the Government
has undertaken an extensive programme of research on the economic
and social impacts of migration in the UK. This included a groundbreaking
report, "Migration: an economic and social analysis",
published by the Home Office in 2001. This was followed by reports
on recent patterns and trends in international migration to the
UK; the fiscal effect of migration; the characteristics and labour
market outcomes of migrants. These helped provide an evidence
base for the White Paper, "Secure borders, safe haven:
integration with diversity in modern Britain", published
in February 2002 which outlined a new policy of managed migration.
The policy is based on the premise that migration is one facet
of the broader phenomenon of globalisation, and provided the process
is well managed, migration can bring significant benefits to the
British economy. As part of this ongoing work, DFID engages with
other Departments, for example with the Department of Health over
the issue of international recruitment of healthcare professionals.
DFID's efforts to develop a comprehensive approach towards migration,
integrating it into country level strategies and assistance, complements
the wider policy objectives.
40. At the EU level, following the treaty
of Amsterdam in 1999, the elements of a comprehensive migration
and asylum policy are progressively taking shape. Integration
of migration within the external policy and programmes of the
Community forms part of this approach. Action is based on the
following four principles: (a) integration of migration must respect
the overall coherence of the Community's external policies and
actions; (b) a long term priority is to address the root causes
of migration, complementing the development policy's focus on
poverty reduction and conflict prevention; (c) the mid-term review
of the country strategy paper (CSP) framework, launched this year,
is the appropriate forum to review the scope for action; and (d)
additional resources for targeted actions on migration will be
necessary, complementing development actions. These principles
were reflected in a Commission Communication on Migration and
Development in December 2002, which was adopted by the Council
in May 2003.
41. A large number of international organisations
are concerned with various aspects of migration. The International
Organisation for Migration (IOM) perhaps has the broadest mandate,
providing services to member governments and migrants, refugees
and displaced persons. It is an intergovernmental organisation,
but outside the UN system. Within the UN system, the Office of
the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the International
Labour Organisation (ILO), UN Development Programme (UNDP), UN
Children's Fund (UNICEF), UN Population Fund (UNFPA), UN Population
division and UN Regional Economic Commission are among the most
prominent players. The UN General Assembly has recently agreed
to the establishment of an independent Global Commission on International
Migration which will start work in January 2004. It has three
aims: to promote migration issues on the international agenda:
to analyse current policy approaches to migration; and to present
recommendations to stakeholders. Other bodies include the Organisation
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and International
Migration Policy Programme (IMP). Migration issues currently have
a somewhat low profile among the policy priorities of the World
Bank and other multilateral development banks, although there
are plans for migration to be a theme of the World Bank's flagship
publication, the World Development Report, in the near future.
D. PRIORITIES
FOR FUTURE
ACTION
42. The links between migration and development
remain uncertain, but there is a growing body of evidence that,
properly managed, migration can be a positive factor for development.
DFID's experience to date suggests that further work is needed
in the following areas to better understand the linkages between
migration and poverty reduction:
— A greater focus on poverty, inequality
and livelihoods. The poor are largely "invisible" when
it comes to migration, and we need a clearer understanding of
how they gain access to migration, and what the indirect effects
of migrations are on the poor and the vulnerable. Does migration
among the less-poor help relieve poverty of the poorest? Does
remittance spending trickle down, or is inequality reinforced?
— How best to promote the opening of
channels for semi-skilled and unskilled workers, building on research
work which suggests that these are the groups which stand to gain
most from liberalisation of services and the freeing up of labour
markets.
— Improving the information base on
the role of internal and international migrants in receiving economies
in order to strengthen understanding of what policies, direct
or indirect, have greatest impact on supporting migration and
the needs of migrants.
— How best to tap into the strengths
of diaspora networks to facilitate transfers of knowledge, ideas
and resources to their countries of origin, not only for development
but also conflict resolution; as well as improving access to information
about opportunities available to migrants and risks to be avoided.
— Promoting the need for better quality
data, especially on internal migration (seasonal, circular, temporary)
to help make poor migrants more visible and support better targeted
poverty reduction strategies.
— Identifying opportunities to promote
cooperation and lesson learning between countries and regions.
Over the coming months, DFID will be preparing
a "Migration and Poverty" policy document to
help deepen understanding of these issues across the Department
and to inform policy dialogue with colleagues in Whitehall and
other development partners.
November 2003
1 Stephen Castles, Heaven Crawley and Sean Longhna,
"States of conflict: causes and patterns of forced migration
to the EU and policy responses" IPPR, 2003. Back
2
Allan Findlay and Lindsay Lowell, "Migration of highly
skilled persons from developing countries: impact and policy responses"
(synthesis report), ILO 2001. Back
3
James Buchan, Tina Parkin and Julie Sochalski, "International
nurse mobility: trends and policy implications" WHO 2003. Back
4
Terrie Louise Walmsley and Alan Winters, "Relaxing the
restrictions on the temporary movements of natural persons: a
simulation analysis" October 2002. Back
5
Dilip Ratha, "Workers' remittances: an important and stable
source of external development finance", chapter 7 of Global
Development Finance, World Bank 2003. Back
6
Hania Zlotnik, "The global dimensions of female migration",
Migration Information Source, March 2003. Back
7
The conference papers and conclusions can be accessed on the
internet at: www.livelihoods.org/hot_topics/migration/dhaka_conf.html. Back
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