Memorandum submitted by the Embassy of
the Republic of the Sudan (London)
UNDERSTANDING THE
DARFUR CONFLICT
The name Darfur is from "dar fur"
which in Arabic means "the land of the Fur". Historically,
it was an Islamic sultanate located in the western Sudan. The
Fur were the ruling ethnic group in the Darfur region before 1916.
The Fur began to be converted to Islam in the 1300s. In 1596,
the Darfur Sultanate was established and Islam declared the state
religion. The Darfur sultanate remained independent through various
conflicts in the Sudan, including the Anglo-Egyptian conquest
of the Sudan in 1898, before finally being subjugated by the British
in 1916 and made part of western Sudan. Darfur's long history
of independence, and its resistance to various other groups seeking
control of all of Sudan, should be taken into consideration to
properly understand the present situation.
Darfur is home to some 80 tribes and ethnic
groups divided between nomads and sedentary communities. The rebels
seem to be drawn from within mainly three communities of the Fur,
Massalit and the Zaghawa tribes. The war has inevitably focused
upon those areas of Darfur within which the insurgents chose to
base themselves. As has been the case in countless wars, many
civilians have chosen to flee and remove themselves from these
war zones. Although the indigenous peoples of Darfur (the Fur,
and several other ethnic groups) and the Arabs have always had
relatively distinct identities, they generally got along well
until resources became scarce, then ethnicity and race became
a factor in the conflict.
Darfur has historically been one of the most
remote regions of Sudan. Even in normal circumstances, the region
is hard to reach because it is so far from the capital, Khartoum.
Tribal and ethnic conflicts are neither new nor uncommon. Incidents
of both small and large scale conflicts are recorded as far back
as 1939 and they generally arise from disputes over access to
natural resources like range lands and water points as well as
livestock trespassing (grazing on farm lands), closure of herd
routes and cattle raiding. Larger conflicts normally emerge from
tribal disputes, banditry and disputes with transnational migrating
communities. The influx of modern small arms since the war in
Chad has increased the loss of life during such conflicts and
caused polarization on ethnic lines. Historically, North Darfur
and parts of West and South Darfur have suffered recurrent droughts.
Crop yields have remained low and unpredictable due to erratic
rainfall, pest infestation and the lack of agricultural inputs.
Livestock has also dwindled due to pasture and water scarcity.
The local labor force has continued to migrate in search of employment
leaving behind children, women and the elderly. A combination
of these factors over several years has systematically eroded
the coping capacities of communities.
The pattern of conflict changed from low-intensity,
small-scale outbreaks from the 1950s to the 1970s, to high-intensity,
persistent and large-scale battles in the mid-1980s. These conflicts
have included those between the Rezegat and Maaleya (1968), Salamat
and Taayesha (1980), Binihelba and Meharya (1980), Zaghawa and
Gamar (1989). The prolonged drought that began in 1983 drove nomadic
Zaghawa and Arab groups southwards into the central Fur region
of Jebel Marra. By the time of the 1989 peace conference, several
thousand tribesmen had died, tens of thousands had been displaced
and 40,000 homes destroyed. These conflicts have been between
nomadic and sedentary communities, and amongst and within nomadic
and pastoralists.
There has also been an additional source of
instability in Darfur. Although the ethnically diverse people
of Darfur were all Muslims and have a very strong sense of belonging
to the Sudan, a sizeable minority also feel affinity with related
groups in neighboring Chad.
In early 2003, two armed groups have waged war
in Darfur against the Government of Sudan. These groups, the Sudan
Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM),
began the war with attacks on towns, government facilities and
civilians in Darfur. Several hundred policemen were murdered and
more than 80 police stations were destroyed in attacks. This resulted
in a security vacuum which further distorted civil society in
Darfur with numerous communities responding in their own ways.
The conflict subsequently spiraled out of control and has resulted
in many deaths and the displacement of hundreds of thousands of
civilians in Sudan. Many others have fled into neighboring Chad.
A growing humanitarian crisis ensued.
The rebel movements appear to have recruited
from within certain tribes and clans in Darfur and the war has
inevitably focused upon those areas of Darfur within which the
insurgents chose to base themselves. Several hundred thousand
civilians have chosen to flee and remove themselves from these
war zones.
The rebel movements in Darfur have claimed that
they are fighting against underdevelopment and marginalisation.
Every part of Sudan, north, south, east and west is underdeveloped
and Darfur has been the focus of considerable government attention.
These claims should be assessed against the information and figures
given below.
Political participation: Since coming
to power in 1989, the Sudanese government has sought to introduce
a federal model of government. Darfuris are very well represented
within Sudan's political structures. There are seven federal government
ministers from Darfur and Darfuris also hold, amongst other positions,
a cabinet-rank presidential adviser position. There are also four
Darfuri state governors and Darfuris are also members of the supreme
and constitutional court. Darfuri representation in the National
Assembly is second only to the southern states.
Education: There has been a continuous
increase in education facilities in Darfur. For example, the number
of primary schools in 1969 was 241, increasing to 353 schools
in 1978. There were 637 schools in 1989 and this increased under
the present government to 786 schools in 2001, in addition to
1,455 mixed schools. Secondary schools have increased from 2 schools
in 1968 to 195 schools in 2001. The present government also established
three universities in Darfur.
Health: The number of hospitals in greater
Darfur has increased under this government from 3 hospitals in
1988 to 23 hospitals by 2001; health centres have similarly increased
from 20 to 24 and medical laboratories from 16 to 70.
Water Supplies: Water production levels
have risen from 6 million cubic metres in 1989 to 11 million cubic
metres in 2003 in addition to increased in natural water reserves
from 1,400,000 cubic metres in 1989 to 12,300,000 cubic metres
in 2003. Water pump production in greater Darfur has also increased
from 1,200,000 cubic metres in 1989 to 3,100,000 cubic metres
in 2003. During 2000-03, the following water projects were implemented
in greater Darfur: the installation of 110 deep ground wells,
the rehabilitation of 133 ground wells, the building of 43 dykes
and 30 dams, the drilling of 842 hand pumps and the rehabilitation
of 839 hand pump wells.
Power Supplies: The total power generation
in greater Darfur has risen under this government from 2,300 kilowatts
in 1989 to 4,500 kws by 2000. Southern Darfur's power generation
in particular grew in the same time from three to seven megawatts
in Nyala.
Transport infrastructure: Greater Darfur
accounts for 40% of airport and aerodrome infrastructure outside
of the national capital. There are three international airports
in Al-Fasher, Nyala, and al-Gineina with smaller airports elsewhere.
All these were built under this government. Prior to 1989 there
was no real road infrastructure in Darfur. The government has
initiated a number of road and bridge building programmes to assist
with communications in greater Darfur.
The conflict in Darfur presents a very complex
situation with very complex problems, and understanding of which
has already been made more difficult by the propaganda, which
invariably accompanies war. The region is home to some 80 tribes
and ethnic groups divided between nomads and sedentary communities.
The rebels appear to have been identified within two or three
communities of the Fur, Massalit and the Zaghawa tribes which
straddle the Sudan-Chad border.
There are many dimensions to the conflict, regional,
national and international. But, environmental factors—such
as encroaching desertification—have led to considerable
tension between nomads and more established farming communities.
The inter-tribal violence that has taken place in Darfur has,
nevertheless, been portrayed by some anti-government activists
and some international media and NGOs as "ethnic cleansing"
and even "genocide". The activities of nomadic Arab
tribesmen known as the "Janjaweed" have come into sharp
focus. It is claimed that they are sponsored by the Government,
which is not true. It is unclear exactly how much control anyone
has over the "Janjaweed" gunmen, except their tribal
leaders.
All wars lead to human rights violations. The
conflict in Darfur has been no exception. And as is so often the
case in war, the conflict has inevitably been caught up in the
propaganda and misinformation that comes with it and that has
certainly characterised previous coverage of Sudan. In its wake,
efforts at conflict resolution will be hampered and the palpable
presence of ethnic hostility will indeed constitute a concrete
and tangible cause of future violent confrontations.
RESPONSE OF
THE INTERNATIONAL
COMMUNITY
The international community has shown considerable
attention to the Darfur crisis, especially given the humanitarian
and security situation. Sudan has welcomed, hosted and facilitated
a wide range of missions and delegations from western countries,
and international and regional organisations. These have included
visits from British Prime Minister Tony Blair, the United States
Secretary of State, Mr Colin Powell and Ministers from, amongst
other countries, Britain, Germany, France, Spain, Switzerland,
Italy, Ireland and Canada. Sudan has accepted and facilitated
United Nations involvement at all levels in addressing and resolving
the Darfur crisis, from the United Nations Secretary-General,
Mr Kofi Annan, downwards. Khartoum has also welcomed, for example,
fact-finding missions from the United Nations High Commissioner
for Human Rights in April 2004, the United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees, United Nations World Food Programme Director as
well as delegations from the African Union, the Arab League and
the Organisation of Islamic Conference. There have been continuing
visits by the United Nations such as that in August 2004 by the
UN special representative to Sudan, Jan Pronk, deputy special
representative Manuel Aranda Da Silva and the UN deputy humanitarian
coordinator Erick De Mul.
The Sudanese Government has also facilitated
international human rights missions by non-governmental organisations,
including that of Amnesty International in September 2004, and
the UN fact finding mission this month of November 2004.
The international community has actively assisted
in attempts to resolve the conflict. The role of the Chadian government
has been very positive. In 2003, the government accepted Chadian
government offers to mediate between the government and rebels.
Chad was instrumental in negotiating ceasefires in western Sudan
in September 2003 and subsequently in April 2004. Sudan has both
acknowledged and welcomed the active mediation role played by
the African Union in attempting to resolve the conflict in Darfur.
Khartoum has particularly welcomed AU involvement given the stipulation
in the United Nations Charter that regional organisations be allowed
first to resolve conflicts before these are addressed by the United
Nations mechanisms. Sudan has also welcomed the role of the African
Union in deploying several thousand troops from African countries
for the monitoring of the cease-fire and protection of such monitors.
The Sudanese armed forces, police and security organisations have
been instructed to give assistance to these forces.
The government engaged, with the help of the
international community, on a comprehensive program for a lasting
solution to the conflict, that restores the economic and social
fabric of the region, renews cooperation between the different
tribal groups to open new vistas for economic and social development.
On 9 April 2004 the Sudanese government and
two rebel movements in Darfur agreed to a 45-day ceasefire to
allow humanitarian assistance to reach several hundred thousand
people affected by the fighting. The agreement included the release
of prisoners of war and other detainees arrested as a result of
the conflict, to stop laying mines and committing acts of sabotage
and had pledged allow the free movement of people and goods.
MEASURES TAKEN
BY THE
GOVERNMENT
The government was duty bound to respond both
to the rebellion and the subsequent break-down in law and order
in parts of Darfur. The government has deployed several thousand
policemen in Darfur to provide security to civilians, and especially
those civilians currently living in IDP camps. There are now joint
border patrols by Chadian and Sudanese security forces. These
patrols are a major step towards ensuring security and protection
of the population in the region. The government has brought before
the courts persons involved in violations of human rights. Scores
of such persons have already been arrested and tried; others are
being apprehended pending trial.
From the onset of the crisis, the Government
has sought a political resolution to the conflict. Early in 2003,
Khartoum initiated efforts at reconciliation through inter-tribal
conferences. It then welcomed outside mediation by the Chadian
government—mediation which resulted in a ceasefire for parts
of 2003. The President has also declared amnesties for those involved
in the conflict and has repeatedly reiterated Sudan's commitment
to a political solution. The Government has also set up a commission
of inquiry into alleged violations of human rights in Darfur.
Members of the commission include prominent human rights activists
and it is headed by a former Chief Justice of Sudan.
To coordinate the government's response to the
Darfur crisis, the Sudanese President appointed as his Special
Representative in the Darfur States, the Interior Minister. On
6 July 2004, 15 decrees were issued aimed at addressing and alleviating
the crisis in Darfur. These addressed security issues, the easing
of aid and relief access to Darfur, human rights monitoring and
the presence and work of African Union observers. They were:
(1) To strengthen the security measures
and protect the citizens in Darfur state.
(2) Opening of police centres in the displaced
camps and to strengthen the security measures in Darfur state.
(3) To extend the necessary help to the
committees and the African surveillance force.
(4) Deployment of the armed force, the participating
force, and the security institutions in Darfur state to maintain
security and protect the citizens and their properties in Darfur.
(5) Exemption of all the humanitarian aid
imports from any restrictions, customs tariff, or any charges.
(6) Repeal of measures regarding the specifications
on the humanitarian aid imports to Darfur state.
(7) To facilitate the freedom of movement
for those working for humanitarian aid organisations in Darfur.
(8) To facilitate the flow of humanitarian
aid to the displaced people in Darfur state.
(9) Exemption of agricultural inputs, fodders,
and seeds in Darfur state from any restrictions, customs tariff,
or other charges.
(10) Exemption of humanitarian aid imports to
Darfur state from any imports restrictions.
(11) To facilitate the work of the national fact
finding committee concerning the allegations of human rights violations
committed by armed groups in Darfur state.
Aid Access to Darfur: Humanitarian aid
access to communities affected by an on-going war has always presented
considerable difficulties and problems. Darfur has been no exception.
The Government of Sudan has assisted whenever and wherever it
can in facilitating relief efforts in Darfur by international
and national non-governmental organisations. There are now some
6,000 aid workers present in Darfur present in 155 locations in
Darfur. The World Food Programme is present in 136 of these centres
and is feeding a million displaced persons.
Media Access to Darfur: Similarly, the
government has allowed and facilitated media access to Darfur
by several hundred journalists.
To stop the spreading malaise of ethnic hostility,
the Government of the Sudan, in fulfillment of its responsibilities
and obligations toward its citizens and to ensure their well-being,
is seriously involved, with the help of the international cmmunity,
on a comprehensive programme for a lasting solution to the protracted
conflict, that restores the economic and social fabric of the
region, renews cooperation between the different tribal groups
to open new vistas for economic and social development.
The priority must be to complete the Naivasha
peace process. Second, whatever the level of civilian support
enjoyed by militias, it would be a mistake to tarnish the communities
with the sins of the particular militia they support. On the contrary,
every effort should be made to neutralise the militia and stabilise
communities in Darfur through local initiatives. To build confidence
among all parties, but particularly among those demonised as "Janjaweed,"
we need to use the same standard for all. To make the point, let
us first look at the Darfur as one family. Finally, to build on
the Naivasha process by bringing in all those previously excluded.
To do so will require creating the conditions for a reorganised
civil administration in Darfur.
November 2004
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