Memorandum submitted by Dr Paul Connolly,
Reader in Education, Queen's University Belfast
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 This written memorandum provides evidence
of relevance to one specific aspect of the Inquiry's terms of
reference, namely: "To examine the effectiveness of measures
taken by government and relevant agencies to tackle prejudice."
1.2 The evidence relates specifically to
the nature and extent of prejudice among children of nursery and
primary school age in Northern Ireland (ie 3-11 year olds) and
also what measures government can take to effectively reduce this.
2. WHAT IS
KNOWN ABOUT
THE DEVELOPMENT
OF PREJUDICE
AMONG YOUNG
CHILDREN IN
GENERAL
2.1 There is now considerable research evidence
to show that children are capable of recognising physical differences
and of developing prejudiced attitudes towards those who are different
to themselves from the age of three onwards. From this age, it
has been found that some young children have acquired negative
attitudes towards and are capable of excluding others on the basis
of their "race", gender and disability.
2.2 There is much less research evidence
currently available on the development of homophobic attitudes
(ie prejudiced and derogatory attitudes towards lesbian and gay
people) among very young children. However, there is a growing
body of observational research that has documented the importance
of boyfriends/girlfriends to some children's playground cultures
within the first few years of schooling (ie P1 and P2). Moreover,
homophobic abuse has been found to have become a routine aspect
of some children's peer-group relations by the middle and especially
later years of primary school.
2.3 Very little research has been undertaken
and published on the development of ethnic prejudice among young
children where difference in terms of ethnicity is not based upon
obvious physical differences. This type of prejudice would come
closest to what is regarded as sectarian prejudice in Northern
Ireland. Some research conducted in Israel/Palestine however has
shown that such prejudices can occur from the age of three onwards.
A study of young Jewish children found that some three year olds
were aware that "Arabs" exist, that they are different
to themselves and that they are "bad" and "dangerous".
Those same children however did not appear to believe that Arabs
were physically different or distinguishable from themselves.
3. THE NATURE
AND EXTENT
OF PREJUDICE
AMONG YOUNG
CHILDREN IN
NORTHERN IRELAND
3.1 There is evidence of pre-school children
in Northern Ireland developing negative attitudes in relation
to `race' and disability. A recent study of three- and four-year-old
children showed that they exhibited a small tendency to be less
willing to play with Chinese children and children with a disability
(in this case, children wearing a corrective eye patch) than others
(Connolly, 2004).
3.2 The situation in relation to attitudes
towards religious differences and sectarian prejudice among young
children is a little more complex. A few key points can be gleaned
from two recent research studies (Connolly, Smith and Kelly,
2002; Connolly and Healy, 2004):
— While the vast majority of pre-school
children do not appear to be aware that they are a member of either
the Protestant or Catholic tradition, there is evidence that they
are already acquiring some of the political attitudes and cultural
preferences relating to their respective communities. For example,
twice as many Catholic three-year-olds said that they did not
like policemen and also did not like Orange marchers compared
to Protestants of the same age (see Table 1 below). A clear trend
for children of this age to prefer the national flag relating
to their own community was also evident. However, in all these
cases, the three-year-olds showed very little understanding of
or ability to explain the reasons for their preferences.
Table 1
THE ATTITUDES OF CATHOLIC AND PROTESTANT
THREE YEAR OLDS
|
| Catholics
| Protestants |
|
| Percentage of children who . . . |
| |
| stated they did not like orange marchers |
18% | 3%
|
| stated they did not like policemen | 34%
| 15% |
| preferred the British Union Flag | 36%
| 60% |
| preferred the Irish Tricolour Flag | 64%
| 40% |
|
Source: Connolly, Smith and Kelly (2002).
— By the age of six, it is estimated that a third
(34 per cent) of all children in Northern Ireland recognise that
they belong to one of the two main religious communities in Northern
Ireland and one in six (15 per cent) make sectarian comments without
prompting. There is also evidence that such attitudes first begin
to emerge among children, albeit in a very limited way, from the
age of three onwards (see Figure 1 below).
Source: Connolly, Smith and Kelly (2002).
— Such general measures of children's attitudes
do, however, mask significant variation between children living
in different areas. For children living in areas that experience
relatively high levels of sectarian tensions and violence, it
has been found that they tend to develop a strong sense of being
either Protestant or Catholic by the ages of seven and eight (Connolly
and Healy, 2004). By the ages of 10 and 11 they also tend
to develop a relatively detailed awareness of historical and political
events associated with their own (but not the other) community.
— By the ages of seven and eight such children also
tend to hold strong negative attitudes and prejudices towards
those from the other community and a number tend to be routinely
involved in cross-community interface violence (particularly verbal
abuse and stone-throwing).
— In contrast, for children living relatively free
from sectarian tensions and violence, it has been found that they
tend only to develop a proper awareness of the divisions that
exist and that they are a member of one of the two main religious
traditions by the ages of 10 and 11. They also show relatively
high levels of ignorance and misunderstanding of local news and
events, even though many express a wish to be able to learn more
about these from their parents and teachers.
4. THE POTENTIAL
TO REDUCE
YOUNG CHILDREN'S
PREJUDICED ATTITUDES
AND TO
INCREASE THEIR
WILLINGNESS TO
BE INCLUSIVE
4.1 A major new media initiative targeted at pre-school
children (those aged three and four) with the aim of reducing
their negative attitudes and increasing their willingness to be
inclusive of those who are different to themselves has recently
been piloted in Northern Ireland. The initiative—the Media
Initiative for Children (http://www.mifc-pii.org)—is a joint
venture led by NIPPA (the early years organisation in Northern
Ireland) and the Peace Initiatives Institute (a US-based organisation).
It has involved the production and broadcasting of three one-minute
cartoons on regional television followed through by specially-develop
materials for use in pre-school settings.
4.2 A formal evaluation of the pilot programme involving
165 three- and four-year-old children found that the programme
was already having a positive and demonstrable effect after just
three weeks (Connolly, 2004). It was found, for example,
that once they had participated in the three-week pilot programme
these children were more likely to:
— be able to recognise instances where a child was
being excluded in the playground (12% of the children were able
to do this before the programme compared to 50% afterwards);
— recognise that being excluded makes someone feel
"sad" (44% before the pilot increasing to 67% afterwards);
— be willing to play with children who are different
to themselves (for example, 40% stated that they would like to
play with a Chinese girl they were shown a photograph of before
the pilot programme; this increased to 51% afterwards).
5. MEASURES THE
GOVERNMENT AND
RELEVANT AGENCIES
CAN TAKE
TO TACKLE
PREJUDICE AMONG
YOUNG CHILDREN
5.1 It is clear from the evidence provided above that
prejudice can start at a very early age among children in Northern
Ireland. It stands to reason, therefore, that any measures taken
to reduce prejudice and to tackle hate crimes in Northern Ireland
must include a significant focus on dealing with these issues
when they first begin to emerge in young children's lives and
thus before they "take hold".
5.3 It is with this in mind that three key recommendations
are made below to government and relevant agencies in terms of
measures they can take to help reduce prejudice among young children:
— A carefully developed and properly resourced curriculum
should be developed to encourage all children in Northern Ireland,
from nursery age through Key Stages One and Two, to explore a
range of different cultural practices, events and symbols, to
appreciate and respect diversity and difference and thus to be
more inclusive of others.
There is already evidence, as reported above, that it is possible
to begin to tackle children's negative attitudes and to encourage
them to be inclusive from a very early age. What is being suggested
here is that serious efforts need to be made within Northern Ireland
to construct a curriculum that can develop a coordinated approach
that begins in the early years and is built upon through the primary
years (and beyond).
— From the beginning of Key Stage Two, measures
should be taken to begin to encourage children to develop a better
and more rounded understanding of their own society through increasing
their awareness and understanding of some of the key political,
economic and social developments that have taken place in Northern
Ireland.
The research discussed above has shown that by the ages of
seven and eight children are already developing an awareness of
broader social and political events. For those in areas that suffer
from high levels of sectarian tensions and violence, this awareness
and knowledge develops very quickly but is only partial and often
focused on their own community. For those fortunate enough to
be living relatively free from such tensions and violence, they
tend to maintain a remarkable ignorance of the main events that
surround them throughout their primary years, even though many
have expressed a desire to learn more.
Building trust and understanding between the two main traditions
in Northern Ireland and also producing individuals that can become
full and active citizens within the wider community depends upon
developing such an understanding. The research evidence to date
suggests that such an educational process can and should begin
in primary schools.
— In areas characterised by significant levels of
sectarian tensions and violence, it is important that conflict
resolution efforts should include significant and meaningful work
with younger children (from about the age of seven onwards).
Given that children as young as seven living in such areas
are likely to be regular witnesses to, if not to also be involved
in, routine violence with those from the "other side"
then it stands to reason that such children need to be included
in any conflict resolution work that is taking place in these
areas.
Moreover, there is a responsibility on government and relevant
agencies to provide appropriate care and support to children who
are forced to deal with the day-to-day effects of living under
the shadow of violence. Helping children to reflect upon and work
through their experiences and perspectives should certainly form
part of the work engaged in with children in these areas.
23 August 2004
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