Memorandum submitted by the Department
for International Development on behalf of HMG (see also Ev 153)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. Sustainable use and management of environmental
resources is critical to poverty reduction. Poor countries depend
on environmental resources to a much greater extent than richer
countries. Environmental wealth—natural resources—is
one of the main sources of growth in developing countries, and
central to the livelihoods of poor people. The environment—and
the economic growth it supports—provides jobs and incomes,
and products and services. Governments and donors, working with
civil society and the private sector, have important roles to
play in addressing environment and sustainable development.
2. In February 2005, DFID published its
policy paper DFID's Approach to the Environment. The main
focus is on how environment contributes to poverty reduction and
sustainable development in developing countries, as measured by
progress towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
3. This memorandum describes DFID's approach
to the environment and how we work with others on environment
and sustainable development. It provides information to judge
how effective we have been. The fourth section addresses agriculture
and natural resource use specifically.
4. The memorandum takes into account the
way in which donors have changed their approach over the last
five years—towards developing country leadership; addressing
the big policy questions—particularly around global environmental
issues such as climate change; and achieving coherence of approaches
and lesson learning.
5. Headings reflect the questions posed
in the Committee's press release (with the question number referenced).
Examples of DFID's activities are included in each section, as
are examples of where DFID's approach has worked well or, conversely,
has been unsuccessful (Question 12).
A. DFID'S APPROACH
TO THE
ENVIRONMENT
How does DFID incorporate sustainability generally
and environmental issues in particular into its work? [1]
6. DFID's aim is the elimination of poverty
in poorer countries through sustainable development. Poor people
want jobs or self-employment to enable them to have a better life.
For DFID, achieving economic growth is essential for poverty reduction.
This offers the best prospect for escaping poverty. But poor people
also want the other things that environmental resources provide:
better health, security and being less vulnerable to hazards and
shocks. We aim to address sustainable development's economic,
social and environmental dimensions. Addressing all three dimensions
is not always straightforward, however: sometimes trade offs are
required.
7. We published our Policy Paper DFID's
Approach to the Environment in February 2006 (appended). The
main focus is on how environment contributes to poverty reduction
and sustainable development in developing countries, as measured
by progress towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The
paper describes how we integrate the environment into our work
with developing countries and other donors.
8. The "environmental" goal is
MDG 7—to ensure environmental sustainability. Weak progress
towards ensuring environmental sustainability will compromise
achievement of the other MDGs and undermine our wider investments
in poverty reduction. Environmental management and sustainability
contribute towards other MDGs, for example:
MDG 1—Eradicate extreme poverty and
hunger
The livelihoods and food security of many rural
and urban poor people depend on ecosystems being able to sustain
a diverse range of goods and services. Good environmental management
and sustainable use of environmental and natural resources are
essential for sustained economic growth that benefits poor people.
MDG 2—Achieve universal primary education
Children, especially girls, spend much of their
time collecting water and fuel-wood, reducing their chances of
going to school. Girls' attendance is encouraged by better school
sanitation.
MDG 4—Reduce child mortality
Diarrhoea and respiratory infections, major killers
of under-five children, are strongly linked to dirty water, inadequate
sanitation and air pollution.
9. We have developed a number of principles
for tackling environmental challenges. These principles are applied
according to circumstances and practicalities in country programmes,
through work with other donors, and in our policy and research
work:
— We integrate the environment and
natural resources into our work—aiming to identify opportunities
that contribute towards poverty reduction as well as addressing
environmental risks;
— We support country-led approaches
eg Poverty Reduction Strategies that develop capacity to handle
local, national and global environmental priorities;
— In selected countries we support
local processes that encourage sustainable development and improved
capacity to manage the environment in a way that benefits poor
people;
— We generate and manage environmental
information, knowledge and learning eg developing good practice
of how to improve environmental management for poverty reduction
that can be used by DFID and other donors, and funding research;
— We support developing countries to
strike effective deals through multilateral initiatives eg international
climate change negotiations; and
— We help strengthen the co-ordination
of donors' efforts and policies on the environment for poverty
reduction, internationally and at country level.
Does the unique definition of sustainable development
in the 2002 International Development Act have implications for
the environment? [1]
10. The International Development Act defines
sustainable development as "any development that is, in the
opinion of the Secretary of State, prudent having regard to the
likelihood of its generating lasting benefits for the population
of the country or countries in relation to which it is provided."
11. Benefits to poor people in poor countries
are the primary focus for DFID. Interventions with human wellbeing
as a central objective—but which also aim to improve the
environment—are in accordance with the Act. Many social
benefits will not be "lasting" if based on unsustainable
use of environmental resources, nor will they be so if development
assistance causes environmental damage.
12. DFID focuses on sustained poverty reduction,
looking for environmental opportunities that are likely to contribute
to this objective, and minimising environmental risks where they
are likely to undermine the objective.
13. We have a list of things that should
be excluded under the Act. These include activities which are
likely to undermine both poverty reduction objectives and environmental
sustainability, such as support for supply of fur, drugs or hazardous
chemicals.
Is a pro-poor, pro-environment development agenda
possible and, if so, what should be its focus? [7]
14. We think that not only is it possible,
it is necessary. Poor countries depend on environmental resources
to a much greater extent than richer countries. Environmental
wealth—natural resources—is one of the main sources
of growth in developing countries, and central to the livelihoods
of poor people.
15. But poor people, as they point out when
asked, have inadequate access to environmental assets such as
clean water, clean air, fertile land and productive plant and
animal life that are essential for livelihoods and health. The
problem in many countries is the lack of ways in which poor people's
views on environment can be heard and responded to.
In Pakistan, through a DFID supported
Participatory Poverty Assessment (using questionnaires and interviews
with poor communities) in 2003, poor people identified environmental
and natural resources, including access to land and water, and
a degrading natural resource base, as one of six priority areas
for them.
16. Environmental hazards, such as floods,
depletion of natural resources and pollution threaten development.
Poor people usually bear the highest costs. Global and regional
environmental challenges, particularly climate change, are making
hazards worse, with adverse effects on poverty reduction and sustainable
development.
17. At the same time we can not, and should
not, deny poor countries the chance to grow their way out of poverty.
Poor countries and poor people will use more power and consume
more resources and they will need to, if they are to grow. We
can help countries develop better approaches, using assets—forests,
water—more sustainably, and help them to manage the environmental
impacts of their growth. This includes better environmental information
for economic planning, and the use of more efficient and newer
technologies—for instance, clean energy.
18. We need also to focus on the global
consequences of growth, above all in the case of climate change,
because unless it is tackled there will be huge negative consequences,
especially for poor countries who will be worst affected. Poor
countries will need to increase resilience and adapt to such change
so that hard won gains in poverty reduction are not compromised.
19. Three basic approaches are required
to address environmental challenges for poverty reduction and
development:
20. Direct contributions to better environmental
management
We need to focus on environmental outcomes that
matter most to poor people, and which are central to achieving
the MDGs. This includes, for example, improved access by poor
people to environmental assets, such as clean water and fertile
land, and improved living conditions, as in urban slums. It can
also include addressing global and regional environmental challenges,
most significantly climate change.
21. Tackling underlying institutional challenges
Environmental problems linked to poverty are
a sign of state ineffectiveness and a result of institutional
failure. The environment needs to be integrated into development
by encouraging sustainable use of natural resources for pro-poor
growth; by addressing governance of environmental assets; and
by ensuring global and regional environmental changes, such as
climate change, are taken into account in development planning.
22. Managing environmental risks
Developmental outcomes are subject to environmental
risks. Assessment of short and long-term environmental impacts
is needed when making development decisions and choices, as well
as during programme implementation. This is true of donor programmes
as well as development planning by developing country governments.
In Kenya DFID supports a programme that
helps poor people gain better access to natural resources such
as forests, scrub and other land, essential for making a living.
We work with civil society organisations to better enable them
to represent the needs of poor communities to government and advocate
improvements in legislation to benefit poor people. The programme
has resulted in greater accountability and transparency in environmental
decision making; and it has strengthened dispute resolution and
worked with the judiciary to improve understanding of environmental
law. The programme is working with private sector natural resources
users to promote their more sustainable use, and to create more
and better job opportunities for poor people.
In China we helped the Yunnan provincial
government to integrate environment into policies and programmes
addressing rural poverty. Our programme identified ways for poor
people to better access environmental resources, such as land
and forests, as well as how provincial government environmental
management policies can be improved to ensure poor rural people
benefit. The difficulty was getting different government departments,
such as environment, poverty reduction, agriculture and rural
energy, to work together.
How should environment, development and equity
be integrated in the proposed White Paper? [7]
23. Environmental issues relevant to poverty
reduction and development will be addressed in the White Paper.
Work on the Paper is, however, at a relatively early stage. Consultation
is taking place through a series of speeches made by the Secretary
of State for International Development on different themes. The
speeches and the consultation document are available on DFID's
website www.dfid.gov.uk. The consultation period started on 19
January and closes on 7 April 2006.
24. The Consultation Document includes the
following questions: How does the environment affect growth; and
what can the UK and other governments do to help developing countries
grow their economies while also managing the environment?
25. The Secretary of State's speeches have
referred to the importance of the environment for poverty reduction.
The speech on growth argued that environmental wealth and natural
resources are a main source of growth in developing countries
and central to livelihoods of poor people. Environmental sustainability
featured as one of the seven essential components for developing
country growth. In his speech on policy coherence, the Secretary
of State referred to the challenge posed to poverty reduction
by the changing global environment and the depletion of natural
resources. The speech focused on the problems that will be posed
by climate change, and stated that DFID needed to ensure that
developing countries were part of a global solution; that developing
countries needed assistance to access cleaner energy and support
to develop regional or sector trading schemes; and that better
information about the predicted impacts of climate change, and
support for developing countries to adapt and build resilience
was essential.
B. HOW DFID WORKS
WITH OTHERS
How does DFID coordinate with recipient governments?
[4]
26. Development is more effective and sustained
when led by developing countries, and where there is strong national
"ownership" and the capacity to act. We encourage and
support country-led approaches that integrate local, national
and global environmental priorities.
27. DFID country programmes work on this
principle, supporting countries' own priorities as set out in
national poverty reduction and other development strategies. In
general, however, national poverty reduction strategies have only
weakly addressed environmental issues, whether at local, regional
or global level. Many less-developed countries do not take an
integrated approach to considering how good environmental management
and accounting for environmental hazards lead to better development.
Authority and responsibility for environmental management is often
fragmented.
28. In "fragile" states, country-led
approaches are more difficult or impossible either because governments
are unwilling or unable to tackle poverty effectively or there
are more immediately pressing issues, such as conflict. Even here
environment still needs to be integrated into programming. We
may do this through support to international and national NGOs,
the private sector and the UN.
29. The role of local institutions and stakeholders
is important—as drivers of and contributors to policy change;
as investors in and deliverers of environmental services; and
in monitoring good environmental management. Strengthened local
voice can help ensure environment and poverty links are properly
addressed in poverty reduction strategies and other development
planning.
30. We work with developing countries according
to their particular circumstances, such as country needs and the
capacities and interests of other donors. This can includes managing
risks from climate change, managing natural resources for growth,
improving access to water and sanitation, improving access to
energy, making links between biodiversity and poverty reduction,
and tackling environmental degradation. We focus on:
— improving governments' abilities
to better address and take a more integrated approach to environment
and development, for example by making better links between planning,
finance, sector agencies and environment stakeholders;
— enabling stakeholders such as civil
society to participate in development dialogue to articulate environmental
needs and influence policy and practice; and
— ensuring coherence of approach with
other donors.
31. One particular difficulty in helping
develop government capacity is the often weak position of environmental
authorities. They can be strengthened to be more engaged in development
planning processes, although there is a danger of focusing too
much on environment departments at the expense of others. Successful
cooperation helps improve coherence of partner government approaches.
In Tanzania, working with the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP), we have helped government
to address poverty and environment together in its growth and
poverty reduction strategy. Working through the Vice President's
Office, we supported consultations with local government and others,
and development of poverty/environment indicators for the strategy's
poverty monitoring system (PMS).
In Bangladesh we are providing £6
million over five years to support the UNDP and the Bangladesh
government to establish a Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme.
This programme will help transition from relief to risk reduction,
including responding to longer-term climate risks.
Because the UK Overseas Territories are
not eligible to benefit from the Global Environment Facility,
DFID has established (with the Foreign and Commonwealth Office)
an Overseas Territories Environment Fund. The fund supports implementation
of the Territories' Environment Charters—and environmental
management more generally—in order to meet local and global
objectives.
How does DFID coordinate with other bilateral
donors and NGOs on environmental matters? Is there consistency
or extensive variation from one country to another? [4]
32. As in other areas, DFID strongly supports
donor harmonisation and co-ordination for environmental management.
We work with other donors at different levels to develop common
understanding of links between environment, poverty reduction
and development. We draw on—and contribute to—guidance
and "good practice" of the OECD Development Assistance
Committee Environet. We are working with the OECD and multilateral
finance institutions to harmonise Strategic Environmental Assessment
approaches.
33. DFID is a member of the Poverty Environment
Partnership (PEP). This was established in 2002 as an informal
group of bilateral agencies, multilateral agencies, research institutes
and NGOs. Members include the Danish Development Agency (DANIDA),
the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), the International
Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and The World
Conservation Union (IUCN). The partnership is a forum for exchange
of ideas and experience. It established a small working group
for the 2005 World Summit to focus and co-ordinate efforts on
raising the profile of MDG 7.
34. At country level DFID promotes co-ordination
among donors to take a collective approach in support of country-led
priorities. The approach is country specific and depends on the
relative interests and capacity of the donors. In some countries
there are active donor co-ordination groups. For example, in China,
we participate in the Informal Group on Environment (which also
includes some NGOs). The China programme also co-ordinates with
WWF on its partnership agreement with DFID and in relation to
the UK Sustainable Development Dialogues (DEFRA led). In other
cases coordination on environment is weak, with a legacy of uncoordinated
donor projects.
35. In the UK, we hold periodic meetings
with the Development and Environment Group (DEG) of NGOs, whose
members include WWF, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds,
Tearfund and Practical Action. This provides opportunities to
discuss key areas of DFID policy and also gather NGO input and
comments. A meeting with the DEG in February 2006 was attended
by the PUSS where he presented the Environment Policy Paper, and
also heard NGO comments on development of the new White Paper.
36. DFID has Programme Partnership Agreements
(PPAs) with IIED, Practical Action, WaterAid and WWF. These agreements
provide a framework for activities that contribute towards mutually
agreed objectives. For example, the partnership with WWF provides
opportunities for WWF to bring their experiences to DFID, particularly
those gained at country level. The funding provided by the agreement
has supported WWF to work with donors and civil society in Tanzania
to build environmental dimensions into the growth and poverty
reduction strategy.
C. HOW EFFECTIVE
IS DFID'S
APPROACH?
As a department that is focused on a long term
goal, poverty reduction, is sufficient account taken of environmental
limits—and the need for development to respect these—when
implementing policy? Is there recognition within DFID of the long
term impacts aid spending can have on natural resources, including
biodiversity, and climate change? Is spending directed accordingly?
[2]
37. Developing countries should not go for
growth now and worry about environmental sustainability later.
However, whilst some developing countries are starting to take
account of natural capital and environmental wealth, most countries
and most donors need to do more to systematically address sustainable
use of natural resource wealth. For example, biodiversity needs
to be factored into poverty reduction but in most cases its contribution
is not valued correctly, predominantly as a result of undefined
property rights and lack of markets—leading to degradation
of these resources.
38. DFID recognises that good environmental
management and sustainable use of natural resources underpin economic
growth in developing countries. A recent study by the World Bank[1]
estimates that natural capital makes up 5% of global wealth but
contributes 26% of wealth in low-income countries. In Ghana, a
study carried out by DFID and the World Bank showed that renewable
natural resources (agriculture, forests, fisheries) contribute
almost 50% of gross domestic product (GDP). But the costs of environmental
degradation were conservatively estimated to be at least 5.5%
GDP (equivalent to about US$ 475 million per year or one third
of total ODA to Ghana) with the most significant contributors
being poor forest management and soil degradation. Ministry of
Finance data suggested a wealth accumulation rate of 25% of GDP;
however assessments as part of this work conclude that this figure
is closer to 15% of GDP.
Ghana
ANNUAL COST OF DEPLETION BY NATURAL RESOURCE
TYPE
Note: NTFP is non-timber forest products
39. The Millennium Task Force on Environmental
Sustainability noted the direct factors behind environmental problems
as change in land use, over-exploitation or inappropriate exploitation
of environmental resources, invasive species, pollution and climate
change. However, there are other underlying drivers of environmental
problems. Though context-specific, we recognise the importance
of addressing governance, economic and institutional capacity
factors that affect poverty reduction and relate to the environment.
40. Climate change is exacerbating existing
pressures on natural resources (eg water, forests, fish and fertile
soil). It threatens to reduce the performance and resilience of
developing economies, especially those heavily dependent on climate
sensitive sectors, such as agriculture and fisheries. By 2025
more than three billion people could be affected by serious water
shortages. We aim to help developing countries cope with and adapt
to the impact of climate change. We are following up G8 commitments
to improve climate data in Africa and develop climate risk screening
procedures for donor investments. Pilot screening work is underway
in Bangladesh to learn lessons.
41. Climate change is one of the four priority
areas of DFID's Research Funding Framework. We have commissioned
work to:
— Use existing data sets to identify
areas of sub-Saharan Africa where current and projected impacts
of climate variability and climate change are likely to be significant,
poverty rates high, and vulnerability to change high, over the
next 10, 25 and 50 years, at sub-national level.
— Assess the feasibility of developing
a decision support toolbox for priority setting, monitoring and
evaluation that can be used to assess cross-sectoral technology,
policy and management interventions aimed at improving the adaptive
capacity and coping strategies of highly vulnerable households.
42. DFID has joined a partnership agreement
with the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), and
the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) for a five
year £30 million Climate Change Adaptation in Africa research
and capacity programme, due to start in April 2006. The programme
aims to minimise the environmental impact of climate change on
poverty reduction. It will also assess strategies to protect natural
resource capital.
43. With regard to climate change and energy,
increased energy consumption using fossil fuels will lead to increased
greenhouse gas emissions. But energy consumption by the poorest
countries makes only a small contribution to global emissions.
Poor countries need to increase energy use for economic growth,
and poor people need increased access to energy in their daily
lives. Our overriding priority for energy is to increase access,
but this must be taken forward with attention to sustainability
of supply and environmental impacts.
44. Following the G8 Summit at Gleneagles,
we have been working with the World Bank on the development
of a new Investment Framework to accelerate the adoption of technologies
that enable cleaner, more efficient energy production and use.
45. There are opportunities to expand and
harness the immature markets for investment in ecosystem services
such as watershed management, biodiversity conservation and carbon
sequestration. DFID has been a main contributor to the start-up
costs of the Ecosystem Market Place. This is a source of information
on emerging markets and payment schemes for ecosystem services,
such as watershed management for water quality, and carbon sequestration
through forestation. It will provide much-needed transparency
in emerging ecosystem markets, including who is buying, who is
selling and at what price. It has information on how low-income
producers and communities can benefit.
Is there sufficient level of expertise within
DFID and country offices on environmental issues? [3]
46. DFID has established the Sustainable
Development Group in Policy Division to coordinate environmental
policy. The group promotes use and management of natural resources
and the environment in a way that promotes sustainable poverty
reduction. This includes enabling poor people to share the benefits
of natural resources and environmental assets such as air, water,
forests, minerals and energy, and improve access to environmental
services, such as water and sanitation. The group also looks at
how good environmental management enhances prospects for sustainable
growth. The group comprises three teams:
47. The Environment for Sustainable Development
team is concerned with the use and management of environmental
assets for poverty reduction at national and local levels. It
helps DFID contribute towards MDG 7 Target 9 to integrate principles
of sustainable development into country-led development policies,
planning and programmes. The team works across UK Government,
with non-governmental partners and with international partners.
It helps DFID benefit from international best practice and promotes
DFID approaches on environment, poverty reduction and development.
It also promotes good practice to address environmental risks
of DFID programmes.
48. The Global Environmental Assets team
is concerned with the use and management of environmental assets
that belong to everyone, not just to a local area or particular
country. This includes issues such as climate change, and international
agreements on forestry, genetically modified organisms, biodiversity
and desertification. Work focuses on ensuring global assets are
used in a way that benefits the poor, and on limiting the effects
of global environmental damage, to which poor people are particularly
vulnerable.
49. The Water, Energy & Minerals
team aims to influence both domestic and international policy-making
and good practice to improve access and manage water, energy and
minerals for poverty reduction. It helps DFID contribute towards
achieving MDG 7 Target 10 to improve access to water and sanitation.
It works internationally, for example with the World Bank and
EU, on policies and programmes that enable the poor to have access
to energy supplies. Work on minerals focuses both on international
policies on large extractive industries and on the protection
of the livelihoods of poor people engaged in small-scale mining.
50. Our policy work on agriculture is carried
out by the Renewable Natural Resources and Agriculture team
in Policy Division's Growth and Investment Group.
51. The Sustainable Development Group is
home to three groups of specialist advisers in DFID: environment,
infrastructure and livelihoods. The heads of profession support
professional development of those advisers and lead on policy
in their areas.
52. A range of staff in DFID work on the
environment. These include programme managers, policy team leaders
and specialist advisers with environment, livelihoods and infrastructure
responsibilities. We currently have 12 environment specialists.
Another six advisers from the livelihoods and infrastructure groups
have specific environmental responsibilities, filling 18 environment
posts in total. Of these, six specialists are based in Policy
Division in the Sustainable Development Group. Policy Division
also houses seven other specialists from the livelihoods advisory
group working on agriculture, fisheries and forestry.
53. Twelve of the 18 specialists working
on environment are based in the regional divisions. Bangladesh,
China and India offices have country-based environment specialists;
and Kenya has two programme-based specialists. However many country
programmes have either livelihoods (including agriculture and
forestry) or infrastructure advisers, who handle environmental
issues in their areas—with the support of regionally-based
environment colleagues.
54. We have fewer environmental specialists
working at country level, and more at policy level, than five
years ago. The environment group is small compared to, say, our
economics or governance groups. We have just embarked on a workforce
planning exercise that will examine the professional skills (and
skill combinations) needed to meet business needs over the next
five years. Environmental capacity will be considered in this
exercise.
How extensively and effectively is environmental
screening of projects applied? [3]
55. We operate a mandatory "environmental
screening" procedure for activities and investments over
£1 million. It is used to identify and address environmental
risks, including global and regional risks such as climate change
and water shortage, associated with DFID's own programmes and
activities. The procedure is an important tool for considering
environmental opportunities as well as risks.
56. The procedure is periodically reviewed
to take account of international good practice, emerging threats
such as climate change, and changing aid instruments. A review
of screening in 2003 revealed some confusion over when and how
to screen. It found that whilst the majority of recorded screening
notes were completed well, there was room for improvement. An
Environment Guide was published in 2003 to provide further guidance
on screening. This is available on our website http://www.dfid.gov.uk
In India, the Orissa Public Enterprise
and Reform Programme is an example of where screening has been
effective. The screening process identified opportunities to mainstream
environmental issues into the programme and to support the Orissa
government in predicting and evaluating the direct and indirect
consequences of the programme on environmental sustainability.
The programme prepared a Guide to Environmental Auditing for
Privatisation. All enterprises in the programme are subject
to initial screening, followed where appropriate by more detailed
environmental assessments.
57. We are carrying out a further review
of our screening. This will be completed by mid-2006. Preliminary
results indicate that use of the Environment Guide has further
improved the screening process, but there have been inconsistencies
in application and difficulties in recording.
58. We will use the results of the review
to improve guidance for environmental screening. This includes
how environmental screening is applied to new aid instruments
such as budget support. In some circumstances, a high level of
screening is not always possible, in particular with rapid humanitarian
responses where the priority is to mobilise resources quickly
and to save lives. We are looking at how to improve the screening
in such circumstances.
How significant a document is DFID's Sustainable
Development Action Plan? [5]
59. During preparation of the UK Sustainable
Development Strategy (UK SDS) we worked with DEFRA and other government
departments to integrate international development perspectives.
The strategy was published March 2005 with a commitment that,
"all central government departments and their executive agencies
will produce focused sustainable development action plans based
on this strategy by December 2005 and will report on their actions
by December 2006, for example in their departmental annual reports
and regularly thereafter."
60. DFID published its Sustainable Development
Action Plan in December 2005. The Plan uses guidance published
by the UK Sustainable Development Commission. It sets out the
overall approach to sustainable development in DFID, which is
to balance the economic, social and environmental aspects of what
we do in developing countries according to the priorities and
circumstances of each country.
61. The DFID Action Plan is not, however,
new policy. Our mandate, policies and activities continue to be
governed by the International Development Act, the published White
Papers and our environment policy paper. The Plan describes how
we will implement DFID commitments under the UK SDS which are
to:
— promote international efforts to
achieve the MDGs;
— achieve the target of putting 0.7%
of the UK's gross national income (GNI) into official development
assistance (ODA);
— increase the effectiveness of aid;
— work with developing countries and
other donors to help integrate principles of sustainable development
in poverty reduction strategies;
— help developing countries to give
appropriate emphasis to water and sanitation in national development
plans;
— share experiences of sustainable
development with other countries;
— help developing countries adapt to
climate change;
— tackle illegal, unlicensed and unregulated
fishing;
— extend the Extractive Industries
Transparency Initiative to other countries and resources;
— support the Global Environment Facility;
— support environment projects in UK
Overseas Territories; and
— lead by example by ensuring sustainability
in our internal operations.
62. The Action Plan is an important tool
for us to help track delivery of DFID commitments in the UK SDS.
Progress of all Action Plans will be monitored by the director-level
inter-departmental Sustainable Development Programme Board, chaired
by the DEFRA Permanent Secretary, as well as by the Sustainable
Development Commission.
The DFID Sustainable development Action Plan includes
plans to pilot "greener" country assistance strategies
by 2007. What should this process entail? [5]
63. The reference to "greener"
country assistance plans is in connection with action on climate
change adaptation. In 2005, the G8 agreed to put climate risk
management procedures in place for donor-funded development investments,
to increase their resilience to climate change impacts. This is
in line with the recommendations of the Commission for Africa.
The UK has adopted the Commission's recommended target of 2008.
A pilot phase will be implemented between now and then, working
with the World Bank and other donors, to integrate climate risk
management into assistance strategies for six pilot countries.
We are aiming to include three DFID country programmes in Asia
and three in Africa in the pilot risk assessment, to cover a range
of climate risk and socio-economic vulnerabilities.
How effective so far have the existing Sustainable
Development Dialogues, such as those established with China and
India, been? Is this an approach that could be extended further?
[6]
64. The Sustainable Development Dialogues,
led by DEFRA, are at an early stage and no assessment has yet
been conducted. The Dialogues offer a good opportunity for DFID
to work with DEFRA and the FCO (and other departments where relevant)
in partnership with the governments of fast developing countries.
65. The Dialogues are designed to strengthen
bilateral ties in a range of policy areas. They aretaking place
in Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa—chosen
for their rapidly growing economies, their increasing regional
and global impact and influence, and the sustainability challenges
they present. The focus goes beyond poverty reduction to broader
sustainable development. Mechanisms such as ministerial and official
exchanges, research and working groups will be used to share experiences
and help deliver mutually-beneficial solutions.
66. DFID engagement will be driven by where
we can most add value, and by the focus of our respective country
programmes. China is at the most advanced stage and DFID's office
has been a major partner in designing and setting up the Dialogue.
There is scope for the Dialogues to strengthen cooperation between
UK government departments. But this needs to be driven by priorities
identified by partner countries themselves. The Dialogues need
time to develop and demonstrate effectiveness before deciding
if the approach can be extended further.
How effectively does DFID influence the work of
Multilateral Development Institutions (MDIs) such as the World
Bank to ensure that environmental sustainability is taken into
account? [8]
67. DFID influences the environmental performance
of the MDIs as "shareholder" and board member. With
organisations such as the United Nations Development Programme
and the OECD Development Assistance Committee, we influence through
technical participation and/or funding. Attribution of influence
is difficult because dialogues are ongoing and many other governments
and stakeholders are involved. Influence over environmental issues
is not always easily isolated since it is integral to wider discussion
about development effectiveness.
68. We have had specific influence over
the environmental performance of the MDIs by:
69. Developing and reviewing policies, strategic
instruments and procedures
We engage on the development, review and coherence
of policies, plans and procedures adopted by MDIs. Examples include:
— The World Bank Extractive Industries
Review of investments in oil, gas and mining. The environmental
implications were a major consideration in the review, and it
concluded that future investment should include adequate environmental
safeguards.
— A review of International Finance
Corporation (IFC) environmental and social safeguards where DFID
helped shape the new IFC Policy, Performance Standards and Guidance
notes through cross-Whitehall and multi-stakeholder consultations,
including hosting dialogues between the IFC and others, including
NGOs.
70. Monitoring and review of specific projects
and investments
DFID maintains a watch over the implementation
of MDI policies and procedures at project and country level. We
review investment proposals as a Board member of the institutions.
71. Regular engagement in forums and working
groups
We participate in the Multilateral Financing
Institutions Technical Working Group on the Environment, and the
International Association for Impact Assessment. This helps contribute
to formative stages of policy guidance, environmental assessment
tools and other initiatives.
How is DFID's work to achieve the Millennium Development
Goals integrated with the targets on fisheries and biodiversity
also agreed at the World Summit for Sustainable Development? [9]
72. Fisheries are important to economic
growth in many developing countries, and the livelihoods of many
poor people:
— Livelihoods: the livelihoods
of some 30-40 million people in Africa depend on fishing.
— Nutrition: in sub-Saharan
Africa fish protein accounts for 22% of animal protein intake
on average, up to 60% in some countries.
— Revenue and foreign exchange:
Global trade in fish products, which is dominated by developing
country suppliers, is greater in value terms than tea, coffee,
cocoa, sugar, bananas and rubber combined.
73. Fisheries are generally poorly managed
and are exploited at unsustainable levels. DFID works closely
with DEFRA to address the World Summit on Sustainable Development
fisheries targets, in particular those related to illegal, unregulated
and unreported fishing. We are supporting UK efforts to promote
internationally agreed measures to tackle illegal fishing, ensuring
that fisheries policies take the interests of developing countries
into account. Our aim is to ensure that EU Fisheries Partnership
Agreements, which underpin the EU's access to developing countries
fisheries, do not threaten sustainability and are genuinely of
advantage to developing countries.
74. On biodiversity, DFID's main policy
interest is to address biodiversity where it is known to be a
priority for poverty reduction. Biodiversity resources globally
are not properly valued. Their preservation in developing countries
(other than through absolute protection) depends on them being
able to generate local and timely economic benefits. DFID is investigating
the potential for generating payments for ecosystem services.
75. DEFRA leads on the Convention for Biological
Diversity (CBD), with DFID support on poverty aspects. DFID's
objective for the CBD is to ensure that it reflects the voices
and needs of poor people.
How effective are funds directed by DFID specifically
towards the Global Environmental Fund? [10]
76. The Global Environmental Facility (GEF),
established in 1991, is the designated financial mechanism for
the international conventions on biodiversity, climate change,
persistent organic pollutants and desertification. It provides
grants and concessionary funds to help developing countries protect
the global environment. It also funds projects that protect international
waters and the ozone layer. DFID has the UK Government lead.
77. The GEF partnership brings together
the World Bank, specialist UN agencies such as the UNDP and UNEP,
regional development banks and NGOs. The GEF is positioning itself
to work more systematically with the private sector. It no longer
simply finances stand-alone projects but aims to influence the
way global environmental issues are handled at country level.
Its lending is staged and dependent on programme performance,
thereby improving the sustainability of the GEF's operations and
its environmental impact.
78. Independent evaluation suggests that
for every dollar the GEF invests, it levers more than three times
as much from other sources. Since inception, the GEF has provided
US$4.5 billion in grants and has generated US$14.5 billion in
co-financing from other partners. DFID contributed £89.5
million under GEF-1; £85.25 million under GEF-2; and £118
million under GEF-3 (making the UK the fourth largest donor).
Negotiations for GEF-4 are ongoing.
79. The GEF has an independent monitoring
and evaluation office, which assesses the effectiveness of GEF
programmes and resource allocations. The office arranges a comprehensive
external study of the GEF's overall performance every four years,
to coincide with the GEF replenishment cycle.
80. The third overall performance study
was completed in June 2005. The study found that there had been
progress in the GEF system in the past four years; stakeholders
were more informed; and implementation had improved. The GEF has
achieved significant result in its biodiversity, climate change,
international waters and ozone deletion focal areas, exceeding
many of its interim targets. The evaluation considered that the
GEF biodiversity programme has had notable impact on slowing or
reducing the loss of biodiversity. It considered the GEF to be
well placed to deliver results in the newer focal areas of land
degradation and persistent organic pollutants.
How effective are funds directed by DFID specifically
towards the environment, for example towards achieving Millennium
Development Goal 7? [10]
81. We estimate that in 2004-05 some £65
million of our aid (including the GEF) contributed towards improved
environmental sustainability. [2]This
is both direct and indirect, including spending on livelihoods
and infrastructure where environmental outcomes are significant.
MDG 7 includes three targets:
82. Target 9: To integrate the principles
of sustainable development into country policies and programmes,
and reverse the loss of environmental resources. Target 9 is the
only non-quantitative target. It is often poorly integrated into
developing country policy, implementation and reporting. The indicators
(forest cover, protected areas, energy sources, carbon dioxide
emissions) do not directly relate to poverty and few are routinely
measured. The international community has agreed that rather than
develop a separate planning and tracking system it is better to
monitor the integration of sustainable development principles
in existing processes. In most poor countries this means poverty
reduction strategies.
83. Recent case studies carried out for
DFID, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and
the German technical agency GTZ show that poverty reduction strategies
have not, in the main, handled environmental governance and management
well. The World Bank has also made an assessment which shows gradual
improvement. Better handling of the environment is strongly associated
with broad participation by NGOs and poor people; and a coordinated
donor approach, working closely with developing country governments.
This is supported by our own experience. More is required, including
stronger links between planning budgeting.
84. It is difficult to assess how much DFID
has contributed independently. But there are examples of where
we have been part of an effective process leading to visible improvements
in environmental capacity. In Uganda, we helped the Ministry of
Water, Land and the Environment to integrate environmental management
into the poverty reduction strategy. In Tanzania we worked with
the Office of the Vice President to ensure that poor people's
reliance on environmental resources was addressed in the growth
and poverty reduction strategy.
85. Target 10: By 2015, reduce by half the
proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and
sanitation. The target is relatively clear. However, there is
no effective measure for access to safe water ("safety"
is assumed to equate with "improved water supply" and
"access" permits a two-kilometre distance from the source;
both assume reliability).
86. DFID provides around 5% of global aid
for water and sanitation, accounting for about 6% of our total
bilateral aid. We published a Water Action Plan in 2005. Over
three years we will double our funding (both bilateral and multilateral)
for water and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa from £47.5
million to £95 million in 2007-08. Our principal partners
are the Water and Sanitation Programme (WSP) managed by the World
Bank; the Global Water Partnership (GWP); the Water Supply Collaborative
Council (WSCC); the Joint Monitoring Programme implemented by
UNICEF and the World Bank; and Water Aid. Evaluations of a number
of these organisations show them to be highly effective.
87. Target 11: By 2020 achieve a significant
improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers.
This target is not stretching given the predicted numbers of slum
dwellers—there are presently 924 million worldwide, and
this may increase to two billion by 2030 if on current trends.
In India, DFID has been a major contributor
to slum upgrading programmes since the late 1970s, funding major
upgrading initiatives across the state of Andhra Pradesh, and
in Kolkata in West Bengal. It currently provides financial support
to a range of international initiatives including the Community-Led
Infrastructure Financing Facility, the Cities Alliance, a new
commitment for the Slum Upgrading Facility, and various World
Bank projects aimed at reducing urban poverty.
How effectively does DFID work with other departments
such as DTI and DEFRA to ensure policy coherence for development
across Government, in relation to WTO and trade in particular?
[11]
88. International and global environment
is, in the main, the responsibility of other government departments.
In recent years there has been a significant increase in the level
of inter-departmental cooperation, for example in developing the
UK Sustainable Development Strategy. DFID's interests are to ensure
poverty and development perspectives are appropriately addressed
in global environment, and to consider how changes in the global
environment impact on poor countries, for example the debate about
sustainable production and consumption in the UK.
89. Examples of where DFID has a significant
interest but where others lead include:
— EU Action Plan on Forest Law Enforcement
(FLEGT), where DEFRA and DFID jointly lead on illegal logging
and international trade in illegally harvested timber.
— UK approaches to international environmental
governance, where FCO and DEFRA lead, mainly made through the
UN system. DEFRA lead on relations with the United Nations Environment
Programme.
— Commission for Sustainable Development,
where DEFRA lead UK involvement including reporting on the Johannesburg
Plan of Implementation resulting from the 2002 World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD). DFID has a major role in meeting
UK commitments on integrating environment into poverty reduction
strategies and other national development plans; and improving
access to water and sanitation.
— Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO)
Global Opportunities Fund where DFID participates in the programme
management committee.
90. DEFRA and DFID are working closely to
achieve greater policy coherence in fisheries. Currently, this
work is focused on implementing internationally agreed recommendations
for addressing illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing;
and on ensuring that EU Fisheries Partnerships Agreements with
developing countries genuinely serve the interests of poor people
in these countries. This work complements that of DFID's country
programmes in realising the contribution of fisheries to growth
eg in Orissa State, India.
The UK's illegal logging programme relies on
close cooperation between a number of government departments (in
particular DFID, DEFRA, FCO, DTI, HM Revenues and Customs), as
well as effective collaboration with the private sector and civil
society. An external review of the illegal logging programme in
2005 complimented this cross-departmental work. It said "the
close personal links between staff in DFID and the EU is a model
to be followed by others. The role DFID has had in enabling UK
Government to influence the EU is exemplary."
91. On agricultural trade and development
in the WTO, we work closely with DEFRA and DTI. The UK's position
is agreed across Whitehall and ministers of all three departments,
along with HMT and FCO, have come together regularly on the Doha
Development Agenda (DDA). The UK was represented at the WTO Hong
Kong meeting by ministers of the three departments. Prior to Hong
Kong, Hilary Benn and Margaret Beckett met development and environmental
NGOs to discuss progress on sustainable development in the DDA.
92. DTI and DFID have a shared PSA target
on trade and development. The White Papers from 2001 and 2004
on trade and globalisation set out how we are ensuring that trade
contributes to sustainable development.
D. AGRICULTURE
AND THE
USE OF
NATURAL RESOURCES
[13]
What is DFID doing to promote the role of sustainable
agriculture in rural development?
93. Ensuring sustainability is a core principle
of DFID's new Agriculture Policy Paper. This highlights
the environmental impact of poorly planned and managed agricultural
policies and incentives and the inappropriate use of technologies.
We contribute to the core budget of the United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organisation (FAO), whose activities include policy
development to strengthen sustainable livelihoods in agriculture,
forestry, fisheries and livestock. Our new Strategy for Research
in Sustainable Agriculture (2006-16) will focus on
research that demonstrates likely impact on improving agricultural
productivity for poverty reduction in sustainable ways.
94. DFID's country programmes support sustainable
agriculture through a combination of direct budget support; rural
livelihoods, watershed and income generation programmes; research;
engagement in policy reform dialogue; and support to other agencies.
This includes:
— integrating sustainability into national
agricultural strategies and sector-wide approaches (eg Mozambique,
Uganda);
— integrating sustainable natural resource
management principles into implementation of Poverty Reduction
Strategy Papers (eg Ghana, Ethiopia);
— supporting institutions that address
environmental issues (eg Rwanda);
— linking international research centres
directly with NGO partners promoting the adoption of low input
conservation methods to improve agricultural productivity (eg
Zimbabwe);
— helping farmers' groups and other
civil society organisations to deliver sustainable agriculture
extension services, for example support to 70,000 farm households
in Nepal since 2003 of whom 60% are poor and excluded;
— funding local councils and village-level
organisations to manage natural resources and tackle environmental
degradation through soil and water management, use of organic
fertilisers and integrated pest management (Myanmar, Cambodia);
— conducting water audits of rural
livelihoods programmes (Andhra Pradesh, India) and assessing water
balances under different land development and land use scenarios
(Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh, India);
— supporting policy dialogue on sustainable
rural development and food security (through the International
Food Policy Research Institute in Ethiopia); and
— helping governments, producers and
small enterprise networks create policy incentives for more sustainable
agriculture through market based mechanisms (eg Nicaragua).
What is DFID doing to tackle the environmental
implications of intensive agriculture?
95. DFID supports the development of good
agriculture policy; reversal of perverse incentives that lead
to unsustainable rates of resource extraction; appropriate use
of technologies; and better soil and water management to offset
the resource impact of productivity increases.
96. DFID works in the poorest regions of
the world, few of which have achieved a high intensity of agriculture.
Many poor people are trapped in low return, low-intensity agriculture.
The challenge is to increase agricultural productivity, largely
by making better use of the existing farmed area rather than expanding
into marginal areas where the risk of land degradation is higher.
Increasing productivity will help poor people build sustainable
exits from poverty, and poor countries to kick-start broader economic
growth and diversification. In the longer term, this will reduce
dependency on natural resource based activities.
97. In parts of India where agriculture
has intensified we are working on cropping systems that are more
resilient to stresses like drought and pests. This has been effective
in reducing insecticide use by 56% and increasing farmers' net
income by 74% in target areas. Also in India, DFID is promoting
low input and organic agriculture—where these systems are
appropriate.
What has been learnt from past experience in agricultural
development, particularly in Asia?
98. Agricultural growth in "green revolution"
areas of Asia was almost invariably the precursor of broader economic
growth, enhanced food security and poverty reduction. But some
areas and people were excluded from the benefits, and resource
management was frequently unsustainable. Evidence for this is
cited in the Agriculture Policy Paper.
99. In "successful" green revolution
countries like India, we are helping address the accumulated environmental
impacts of the green revolution. We are also helping improve sustainable,
low input agriculture in rainfed areas with poor communities who
have yet to realise and benefit from agricultural growth.
100. In Africa (eg Rwanda) and Central America
(eg Nicaragua), our country programmes have analysed the Asian
experience to see what can be learned that is relevant to current
circumstances—and to develop appropriate responses.
What role does forestry play in DFID's development
work and how is it ensuring sustainability?
101. The UK Government recognises the importance
of forests to sustainable development. They provide livelihoods
for many poor people; they conserve biodiversity; they provide
significant ecosystem services; and they are a rich resource of
national development.
102. Most of the UK government's support
to conservation and better management of forests in developing
countries is provided by DFID. DEFRA and FCO also provide some
support. DFID's contribution to forestry through bilateral programmes
has averaged £18 million per year over the last five years.
Countries receiving DFID bilateral support include Brazil, Cambodia,
Cameroon, Ghana, India, Indonesia and Nepal.
103. We make substantial contributions to
international forestry programmes. These include the World Bank's
Programme on Forests (PROFOR) and the UN's Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO), which hosts the multi-donor National Forest
Programme Facility (NFPF). PROFOR was cited by the World Bank
at the Paris Partners meeting in 2004 as one of two examples of
good practice of collaborative working. DFID and other donors
will continue to support PROFOR in its four main areas: finance;
poverty reduction; governance; and cross-cutting macro-economic
issues. The NFPF is a long-running programme supported by a number
of donors. It provides effective support to civil society organisations
concerned with sustainable forest management. It also supports
policy reform and is having a positive impact on wider FAO's ways
of working.
104. Much of DFID's current work is focused
on addressing the governance and market failures that drive illegal
and unsustainable logging. We work through the G8 and the EU,
and other programmes tackling forest governance, trade and corruption.
[3]In
January, we announced a contribution of £24 million for this
work over the next five years.
105. We also work on policies, markets,
and financing that favour forests and poor people. This includes
the development of market-based approaches to the provision of
ecosystem services (water, biodiversity and carbon).
In Indonesia, the Multi-stakeholder Forestry
Programme, co-managed by the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry and
DFID, is supporting transparent dialogue on new forest policies
between civil society, government and business. This is achieving
important governance reforms, empowering local communities, resolving
deep-seated mistrust and conflict, reducing poverty, and promoting
the sustainable management of natural resources. These local governance
transformations are being supported by the work of the UK Government
and the EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT)
process.
In Cameroon, we support the Forest and
Environment Sector Programme, a national programme developed jointly
by the Cameroon Government, the donor community and non-government
organisations. The programme helps implement new policies of participatory
and sustainable management of forest and environmental resources.
DFID will also support a multi-stakeholder governance facility
that will enhance civil society and private sector capacity to
demand accountability of government and to use the opportunities
established to participate in the programme.
What role do fisheries play in DFID's development
work and how it is ensuring sustainability?
106. Fisheries are generally undervalued
and poorly managed. Current levels of exploitation pose risks
to their sustainability. Potential social and economic benefits
are not fully realised and opportunities for reducing poverty
are being missed. DFID promotes the sustainable use of fish resources
in fisheries-dependent poor communities (eg in Uganda and Bangladesh).
We support the development of coherent policies, effective resource
management models, and improving trade in fish products.
107. In the aftermath of the December 2004
tsunami, we are working with FAO, the World Bank, and the governments
of India and Tamil Nadu to develop a policy for recovery of the
fisheries industry in the Bay of Bengal. The policy will cover
sustainable management and the equitable distribution of benefits
to fishing communities, in order to "build back better"
systems than previously existed.
What is DFID doing to harness natural resources
for the benefit of poor people? How is DFID helping to improve
access and property rights to land in specific countries?
108. Improving poor people's access to land
and property rights is a priority of DFID's Agriculture Policy.
It is also a priority for the New African Partnership (NEPAD)
Comprehensive African Agricultural Development programme (CAADP),
which we are supporting. In country programmes we are helping
develop innovative ways to improve national land administration
and policy. This includes a three-year programme with the World
Bank to review and share evidence between countries and generate
national policy options. We also support the High Level Commission
for Legal Empowerment of the Poor, which is helping to focus international
political attention on the issue.
109. Several of DFID's country programmes
(Uganda, Mozambique, Kenya, Rwanda, South Africa, India, Ghana,
Indonesia, Angola) have land programmes. There are also new regional
initiatives to improve access to transboundary water resources
(Southern Africa).
In Uganda DFID has contributed to the
development of the national land sector strategic plan and the
creation of a Land Act, and funded reform of Uganda's outdated
land registries and pilots to systematically demarcate land. Implementation
of land activities is now through support to Uganda's Plan for
the Modernisation of Agriculture.
In Mozambique we lead a five donor consortium
funding a Community Land Use Fund. This will work in three provinces
of Mozambique to help communities engage in land titling processes.
In Kenya we have worked with other donors
to a) support a consultative land policy formulation process;
b) build capacity of key local land administration bodies including
local level dispute tribunals; c) lobby the government to prevent
forced evictions; and d) provide support to civil society to promote
networking and advocacy for pro poor land reforms.
In Rwanda we have supported the cross-Africa
LandNet network and the development of national land policy and
the 2005 Land Law. Over the next two years, DFID will support
implementation of the Land Law, with particular emphasis on building
in safeguards for poor and vulnerable people, including support
to land dispute resolution.
In South Africa our bilateral land reform
programme aims to secure access to land rights in both rural areas
and informal urban settlements, with a particular focus on farm
dwellers and marginalised labour tenants in the land restitution
process and strengthen post-settlement support. A complementary,
multi-donor funded but regionally owned and governed land facility
will provide an additional draw-down resource for SADC member
states.
In India we are working to (a) help improve
access of tribal and other marginal groups to common property
resources; (b) support land distribution and development programmes
for the poor; (c) with FAO, distribute homestead plots to the
landless; and (d) engage in policy discussion on land issues with
the government and other development agencies. A new project in
Orissa will develop a new state land policy and land administration
system (land titling & registration) to improve land use efficiency,
reduce the cost of land transactions, protect the rights of the
poor and improve livelihoods.
In Ghana we and partners are working
to support the government's Land Administration Project. Recognising
that access to land in 80% of Ghana is controlled by a diverse
range of customary tenure systems, this project aims to improve
the effectiveness, transparency and accountability of Customary
Land Secretariats (traditional authorities). This will benefit
poor people by reducing the cost of registering land claims; cutting
out excessive red tape and rent seeking; and making the land allocation
process more transparent and land rights clearer and more secure.
In Indonesia we are supporting land and
governance reforms in forestry by helping civil society to strengthen
farmers' voices, and encouraging local government to respond.
By helping poor people to access unused state land for agro-forestry
production, poverty and environmental decline are being reversed:
conflict is being reduced, corruption exposed, markets are being
opened, producer groups are being strengthened, local government
regulations are being reformed, old mindsets are changing.
1 Where is the wealth of nations? Measuring capital
for the 21st century. World Bank, Washington, 2006. Back
2
This does not reflect spending contributing towards all three
MDG 7 targets due to the way DFID records its data. Back
3
Some of this work was recently reviewed by the EAC: Sustainable
Timber, HC 607-I, 2006. Back
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