Memorandum submitted by the Soil Association
(CIT 29)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
— the contribution of agriculture to
the UK's total greenhouse gas emissions is much more than the
official figure of 8%;
— citizen's can have a major impact
on this through simple choices about the type of food they buy;
— people should be encouraged to buy
seasonal, local, organic food;
— organic farming is the low carbon
system of food production which is twice as energy efficient as
non-organic farming;
— this is mainly because it avoids
the large greenhouse gas emissions from the manufacture of nitrogen
fertiliser and helps maintain the soil carbon bank;
— "local" food reduces "food
miles", but there is still considerable transport involved
in its production if it is non-organically produced;
— buying seasonal food avoids the transport
involved in importation and avoids the electricity used in heating
glasshouses for UK produced vegetables;
— buying whole food, rather than processed
foods, avoids the energy used by the food processing industry;
— buying fresh unpackaged food, avoids
the energy used in packaging and reduces food wastage; and
— the main barriers to the greater
uptake of climate-friendly food are the lack of awareness of the
climate impacts of agriculture and the higher cost of organic
food. However, people can even reduce their food spending by buying
such food direct from producers, while people who rely now on
convenience food would save money anyway.
— the FSA, Defra, regional authorities
and NGOs can all help raise awareness of the issues and encourage
the purchasing of environmentally-friendly food
— schools and public institutions can
take a lead in public education and help the develop the local,
organic supply chain, by buying environmentally-friendly food
for their canteens. The Government should provide more funds to
enable this.
A. INTRODUCTION
The Soil Association was founded in 1946 to
achieve environmentally sustainable agriculture and produce highly
healthy food, through organic farming. We are the main organisation
and certifier for organic food and farming in the UK, certifying
about 70% of the organic food sold in the UK.Organic farming now
accounts for 3.4% of UK farmland. Sales of organic food are worth
about £1.6 billion annually in the UK and the market is growing
by an extra £7 million a week. It is the fastest growing
sector of British agriculture. About 77% of UK households buy
some organic food (TNS poll of 15,000 households). The market
functions well, based on a EU-wide system of production standards
for organic farming and an efficient legally-based system of certification
for organic produce.
Organic farming is the most sustainable farming
system. It is a management-based approach based on using natural
ecological and biological processes in situ on the farm,
rather than using synthetic chemical inputs which have to be manufactured
and transported from elsewhere (the basis of non-organic agriculture).
This approach avoids or reduces most of the environmental problems
of non-organic farming systems, including halving the energy used
in the production of food and maintaining the soil carbon bank.
Organic farming also reduces soil erosion, agrochemical pollution
and waste, and supports higher levels of farmland wildlife than
non-organic farming. The Sustainable Development Commission has
called organic farming the "gold standard" for agricultural
sustainability.
Because of its proven environmental benefits
the Government wishes to expand organic farming. DEFRA adopted
an organic action plan in 2002, with a target that 70% of the
UK organic food market should be supplied by UK farmers by 2010,
and for public food procurement to involve the purchasing of organic
food. There is enormous potential for the expansion of organic
food and farming, with considerable benefits for mitigating and
adapting to climate change.
B. RESPONSE TO
QUESTIONS
Our interest and expertise is in agriculture
and food production; we therefore restrict our answers to this
area.
1. What is the real scope for individual
and local community action to contribute to tackling climate change?
(i) Citizen's can make a major contribution
to reducing the climate change impact of the food they buy. To
assess the importance of this, it is helpful to first have a good
picture of the contribution of agriculture to the UK's total greenhouse
gas emissions. Officially, agriculture accounts for 8% of the
UK's greenhouse gas emissions (14.2MtC in 2005), and is recognised
to be the major UK source of the powerful greenhouse gases methane
and nitrous oxide. In fact, nitrous oxide and methane are the
main greenhouse gases of agriculture, accounting for 55% and 37%
respectively of the total official UK agricultural greenhouse
gas contribution. CO2 is officially the smallest contributor,
accounting for only 8.6% of UK agriculture's total contribution.[55]
(ii) However, this 8% figure is far from
comprehensive and very misleading. It mainly represents only the
direct emissions from agricultural activities. So, the CO2 emissions
due to the fossil fuel energy used in agricultural activities
are included. However, all other indirect emissions due to the
use of farm inputs (from their raw materials, manufacture and
transport) are excluded and accounted for under other sectors
(industry and transport). Secondly, one important emission is
not yet included: soil carbon emissions due to agricultural practices.
Thirdly, this figure does include the substantial emissions associated
with the large proportion of our food that is imported, but for
which we should still take some responsibility. The total contribution
of our current agricultural system is therefore considerably more
than the official 8%; the real figure is not available at the
moment.
Citizen's can make simple decisions in relation
to food that have a huge impact on the level of greenhouse gas
emissions from this component of their lives. There are only two
main choices about the system of food production: non-organic
or organic. There are some other agricultural or food schemes
that apply to a limited number of sectors or issues, but "organic"
is the only alternative to non-organic farming that covers all
food types, from all regions, that addresses a wide range of environmental
issues, is clearly identifiable, and also controlled through the
certification system. The climate change benefits of organic farming
are summarised as follows:
(iii) Minimal manufacture and transport
of farm inputs: The main distinguishing feature of organic
farming, as opposed to non-organic, is that it is genuinely a
largely local production system, using natural processes on the
farm (such as healthy soils for mineral supply and natural predator
populations for pest control). In contrast, non-organic farming
is based on the use of a range of agrochemical inputs, such as
inorganic fertiliser, pesticides, veterinary drugs and also animal
feed (though there is still some use of imported animal feed in
organic farming). Considerable amounts of energy and greenhouse
gas emissions result from the manufacture and distribution of
these inputs to non-organic farms. In addition, this reliance
on external sources of crop nutrients, rather than the soil's
organic content and biology, means that the soil carbon bank is
generally not adequately maintained under non-organic farming.
(iv) Eliminates emissions from N fertiliser
manufacture: the single main climate change benefit of organic
farming is its non-use of inorganic fertiliser. This is a major
source of greenhouse gas emissions. Inorganic fertilisers are
produced from fossil fuel, usually natural gas (methane). This
releases carbon to the atmosphere and also means that fossil fuel
cannot be used for as fuel for energy. In addition, the manufacturing
process is highly energy intensive and produces large quantities
of nitrous oxide. Overall, the manufacture of N fertiliser is
the single main cause of energy use in non-organic farming, accounting
for 37% of the total, and fertilisers are also the single largest
source of nitrous oxide emissions in the world.
(v) Reduces emissions from N fertiliser
use: Furthermore, when nitrogen fertiliser is applied to the
land it emits more nitrous oxide. Although there are some soil
nitrous oxide emissions with the biologically supplied nitrogen
in organic farming (clover), organic farming is less nitrogen
intensive, so the emissions should be less per hectare though
this can be considered countered by the lower yields of organic
farming. In addition, the use of fertilisers acidifies the soil,
requiring the regular application of lime by farmers. The manufacture
of lime produces carbon dioxide.
(vi) Twice as energy efficient: The
non-use of fertilisers and minimal use of other inputs means that
organic farming is much more energy efficient than non-organic
farming. According to a Defra 2000 analysis, organic crop and
livestock production is roughly twice as energy efficient per
unit of food produced.[56]
(vii) Protection of soil carbon bank:
The reliance on fertilisers also affects the soil carbon bank.
Soil is a major store of carbon, containing about twice as much
as the atmosphere. The recent completion of a 25-year UK soil
survey by the National Soil Resources Institute found that the
UK's soil is losing carbon "on an enormous scale". The
researchers estimate that 13 million tonnes (Mt) of carbon are
being lost from the UK's soils each year.[57]
This is almost as much as the official estimate of the greenhouse
gas emissions from UK agriculture (14MtC in 2005); this has not
yet been included in the national inventory.
(viii) Agriculture is the main land use
in the UK and the use of chemical-based farming methods and intensive
grazing is likely to be a cause of these soil carbon losses. In
non-organic farming, soil carbon levels are not maintained as
farming is now reliant on brought in inorganic fertilisers, rather
than the maintenance of the soil's natural organic matter levels.
Fertilisers also cause plants to produce smaller root systems
which means less carbon is built up in the soil. Furthermore,
the use of ploughing in non-organic farming promotes an on-going
net loss of carbon from soils. (In contrast, ploughing is not
generally a problem in organic farming, as soil carbon levels
are maintained by the farm practices). Organic farming relies
on applications of organic matter and the avoidance of toxic chemicals
to build a healthy, living soil with a high organic content.
(ix) Although the conditions may different
in the UK (bearing in mind the large on-going losses of soil carbon,
different soil types and farming practices), long-term trials
abroad have shown that organic farming could have considerable
potential in this area. The Rodale Institute trial found that
organic farming increased soil carbon by 15-28% over 24 years,
while conventional had no significant effect. If adopted nationally,
they calculated it would absorb 1 to 2% of the CO2 released from
the combustion of fossil fuels in the US.[58]
A nine year trial in the US, reported in Science in 2000,
found that organic farming builds up 80kgC/ha/year (although they
only measured the top few centimetres so this would be a considerable
underestimate).[59]
(x) Methane levels: 84% of the agricultural
emissions of methane in England are direct emissions from ruminants,
mostly from cattle. There is no clear data on the overall levels
of methane produced under organic and non-organic systems. The
issues are complex, but overall there may little difference on
a per kg meat basis. However, we anticipate a considerable reduction
in methane emissions with widespread organic farming as there
would be a significant reduction in meat production and consumption,
as all the livestock would be outdoors and the production more
costly.
(xi) Organic farming is therefore an energy
efficient, low carbon solution for food. Buying organic food is
a simple way of reducing the carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide
emissions from food.
(xii) Additionally, choices around the type
of food have a major impact: food that is unseasonal, processed
and/or packaged will have used a lot more energy in its production.
Out of season vegetables, for example, are produced in heated
glasshouses which are very energy intensive system of production.
Processed food involves additional levels of transport and packaging,
and much energy is used by the processing industry. Tackling food
wastage is also a key part of the problem. Considerable amounts
of fresh food are wasted in this country, partly because of the
"cosmetic" standards used by the supermarkets, which
means large amount of good food are rejected, and also because
of use of packaging for much fresh fruit and vegetables by the
supermarkets which means people often buy more than they need.
So, fresh, whole (ie unprocessed) food, bought locally and unpackaged,
is best.
(xiii) Additionally, choices should be made
around the source of the food: whether UK produced and locally
supplied; or UK but bought from a supplier that uses a centralised
distribution (ie supermarkets); or imported. To minimise the emissions
associated with "food miles", local food is best. It
should be noted that local, non-organic food is not a substitute
for local, organic food, as non-organic food will have involved
a considerable level of transport of farm inputs prior to the
farmgate.
(xiv) Therefore, by mainly buying food that
is seasonal, local, organic whole food, people can considerably
reduce the impact of their food on the climate. In this way, people
would also be generally eating a tastier and much healthier diet
as well.
(xv) Awareness raising has considerable
potential in helping people make more climate-friendly food choices.
Currently, there is very low awareness of these issues, particularly
the significance of the current reliance on fertilisers and how
non-organic farming is essentially a transport-based system.
2. What are the barriers to uptake of climate
change mitigation strategies at the level of the individual, and
how can they be overcome? Are current incentives sufficiently
strong to affect behaviour?
(i) Purchases of organic food grew 30% last
year, a good level of growth for any sector. Nevertheless, organic
food still accounts for less than 2% of the whole food market.
The main barriers to uptake are (i) the perception of a higher
cost of organic food, (ii) inadequate awareness of the impact
of non-organic farming on climate change, (iii) and the lack of
public support from the Food Standards Agency and other Government
agencies to encourage greater consumption of organic food.
(ii) Generally organic food is more expensive,
if like-for-like comparisons are made. However, this is not the
case if people are prepared to buy their food from different sources,
such as vegetable box schemes. A price comparison by the large
box scheme company "Riverford" against Sainsbury's prices
for the same non-organic items in July 2005, showed that Riverford's
organic food was generally cheaper than non-organic food from
Sainsbury's, with 5 of 7 of their boxes being cheaper.
(iii) Also, people who rely heavily on convenience
food would save money by moving to a fresh organic diet. The Daily
Mail challenged two families in July 2006, swapping the dietary
habits of a wholly organic family and a family which relies on
convenience food. The first spent £214 on processed food
and ready meals, compared to their usual £120 for organic
food, and noticed that their children's behaviour became worse.
The other saved money by moving to organic food, spending only
£115 compared to their usual £140. First magazine
did a similar challenge with two families who were spending an
average of £80-85 per week on food, one to eat only fresh
organic food and the other to eat only ready meals. The "organic"
family saved over £5 a week, spending only £74.78, while
the "ready meals" family spent over £10 more than
normal, spending £96.18, and also noticed that the behaviour
of their children became difficult.
(iv) Government policy is that organic farming
should be "market-led", although it assists the expansion
of organic farming through payments for conversion and the £60/ha
area payments under the Organic Entry Level Scheme (compared to
only £30/ha for non-organic farmers). But neither the Food
Standards Agency or the Government actively promote the purchasing
of organic food by the general public, leaving this to the media
and the Soil Association. We agree the sector should be market
led, but much could be done to encourage greater consumption of
local, organic food.
(v) How can Government and other
agencies—at national, regional and local levels—encourage
the uptake of domestic emission reduction measures? What is the
role of community projects in schools and other public institutions?
(vi) There is currently little awareness
among the public of the real climate impact of the current agricultural
system and their food choices, and this is a lost opportunity.
We think the Food Standard's Agency and Defra should adopt proactive
policies to raise awareness of the impacts of non-organic farming
and other food choices. Based on this, they should encourage and
help people adapt their food choices, with guidance on how to
minimise costs. This should be part of a wider attempt to develop
a more positive food culture in Britain where the pleasure of
buying, cooking and eating good, fresh food is valued.
(vii) Schools and public institutions have
a considerable role to play in raising awareness and developing
the organic market, and so improving supply efficiencies through
economies of scale and improvements in the local, organic supply
chain infrastructure. Schools should take major steps to introduce
local, organic food, educate children about the impacts of farming
and food choices, and to develop a positive food culture among
school children. The Soil Association has gone a long way in achieving
its objectives for improving school food, helped by the high profile
support of Jamie Oliver, but more money is still needed to help
schools make all the changes. All schools should be encouraged
to take part in our "Food for Life" initiative for schools,
which provides a guided framework for improving school food. Public
institutions should take a lead in introducing local, organic
food through their public food procurement purchases. Budgets
should be increased and targets for year-on-year increases in
the percentage of food that is local and organic should be adopted.
(viii) All this should be taken forward
by: (i) an official assessment of the climate change and other
benefits of widespread organic farming; (ii) a strategy to develop
organic farming to at least 30% of food and agriculture by 2020;
(iii) a public promotion campaign for organic food; and (iv) public
food procurement targets for 30% organic and 50% local food by
2015.
3. What is the role of NGOs in delivering
the "citizen's agenda" on climate change?
(i) NGOs can all help spread the message
about the climate impacts of non-organic farming and other food
choices, and encourage people to instead mainly buy fresh, seasonal,
local, organic food. They should ensure that they themselves have
taken steps to supply such food within their organisation and
events.
4. Are Domestic Tradeable Quotas (personal
carbon allowances) a viable option? What other economic and other
incentives for behavioural change might also be considered?
(i) We cannot comment on the viability but
any schemes should cover food choices.
The Soil Association
September 2006
55 Soil Association calculation. Using 2002 data for
UK agricultural (i) CO2 emissions of 1.2MtC from "Review
of the UK Climate Change Programme-consultation paper, Defra,
2004; (ii) methane emissions of 890,000 t and N2O emissions of
89,500 t from "UK Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990-2003 - Background
for Agriculture", 2005 (http://www.naei.org.uk/reports.php).
Using conversion factors of 21 for methane and 310 for N2O, gives
5.1MtC-equivalent for methane and 7.6MtC-equivalent for N2O emissions.
Total = 13.9 MtC. 1.2 MtC of CO2 = 8.6%; 5.1MtC of methane = 37%;
and 7.6MtC of N2O = 55% of total UK agricultural GHG emissions. Back
56
MAFF review "Energy use in organic farming systems"
(1996/2000). Back
57
"Carbon losses from all soils across England and Wales 1978-2003",
P Bellamy et al, Nature, Vol 437, 8.9.2005. Back
58
"Environmental, energetic, and economic comparisons of organic
and conventional farming systems", D Pimental, P Hepperly,
J Hanson, D Douds, and R Seidel, BioScience, July 2005. Back
59
"Greenhouse Gases in Intensive Agriculture: Contributions
of Individual Gases to the Radiative Forcing of the Atmosphere"
by G P Robertson, E A Paul and R R Harwood; Science, Vol 289,
pages 1922-1925, 15.9.2000 (www.sciencemag.org). Conversion to
kg/ha by Soil Association. Back
|
