Memorandum submitted by World Development
Movement
1. INTRODUCTION
1. The World Development Movement (WDM)
campaigns to tackle the root causes of poverty. With our partners
around the world, we win positive change for the world's poorest
people. We believe that charity is not enough. We lobby governments
and companies to change policies that keep people poor. WDM is
a democratic membership organisation of 15,000 individuals and
70 local groups.
2. We welcome the Environmental Audit Committee's
decision to hold an evidence session into carbon capture and storage
with particular focus on developments surrounding the proposed
new Kingsnorth power station.
3. There are three issues which should be
addressed separately: the UK government's competition for a 300-400MW
demonstration carbon capture and storage power station; E.ON's
application for a new 1600MW unabated coal power station at Kingsnorth
in Kent; and E.ON's entering of Kingsnorth into the carbon capture
and storage (CCS) competition. Whilst these issues are separate,
unfortunately they are often conflated as being the same issue.
4. This submission makes the following three
points:
The CCS demonstration project
5. The UK government's subsidy for a CCS
demonstration project to research the effectiveness and cost of
post-combustion CCS technology should be supported.
E.ON's application for a 1600MW unabated coal
power station
6. The UK government should refuse to consent
E.ON's application for a 1600MW unabated coal-fired power station
at Kingsnorth. Any new unabated coal power stations in the UK
would make it extremely difficult for the UK to meet targets for
reducing emissions by 2020. Furthermore, there is and can be no
guarantee that CCS technology would be added to Kingsnorth in
the 2020s, and so any decision to consent Kingsnorth risks locking
the UK into high-carbon infrastructure for decades to come. Instead,
the UK government should set a greenhouse gas standard which any
new power stations built in the UK have to meet.
Kingsnorth and the CCS demonstration project
7. If Kingsnorth wins the 300MW CCS demonstration
project competition, the 300MW CCS plant should not be used to
justify the 1300MW of unabated coal which would still exist if
the government consents E.ON's application for a 1600MW power
station. Around 80% of Kinsgnorth would be unabated coal and emit
CO2 at the rate of a supercritical coal power plant; around 0.9
tonnes of CO2 for every MWh of electricity produced. The remaining
20% would be CCS and emit at a rate of 0.16 tonnes of CO2 for
every MWh of electricity.
8. Overall, a Kingsnorth with 300MW of CCS
and 1300MW of unabated coal would emit at a rate of 0.75 tonnes
of CO2 for every MWh. This is still almost double the emissions
of a modern gas power plant. If the UK government regards E.ON's
CCS application as the best entrant into the CCS demonstration
project competition, it should consent the 300MW CCS plant and
only the 300MW plant.
2. THE CCS DEMONSTRATION
PROJECT
9. Technology for CCS exists in separate
plants around the world but there are no full-scale power plants
currently operating capturing, transporting and storing CO2.1
Therefore, CCS is not yet deployable at scale. It is therefore
not yet known whether the technology can be made to work and how
expensive it will be.
10. The UK government has launched a competition
to subsidise one CCS project with 50-100 MW of capacity by 2014,
rising to 300-400MW "as soon as possible thereafter".2
By 2014, the project will have to demonstrate the full cycle of
capturing, transporting and storing the CO2.
11. The IPCC says that current technology
captures 85-95% of the CO2 generated.3 The UK government has said
the demonstration plant should be able to capture and store "up
to 90%" of the CO2 emissions.4 Given that this is an aspiration
for 90%, rather than a clear commitment, we will assume for the
purposes of this submission that the CCS demonstration plant will
capture 85% of the CO2 emitted. Coal CCS should therefore emit
less CO2 per MW hour directly from the power plant than modern
gas power plants (see Table 1 below).[17]
However, coal CCS still emits some CO2 directly from the power
plant, unlike renewable technologies such as wind.
Table 1
CO2 EMISSIONS DIRECT FROM POWER PLANTS
| Type of power plant
| CO2 per MW hour |
| Subcritical coal | 1.20 |
| Supercritical coal | 0.9 |
| Gas (CCGT) | 0.4 |
| Subcritical coal with CCS[18]
| 0.23
|
| Supercritical coal with CCS[19]
| 0.16
|
| Wind | 0 |
| |
12. On current policies, if the government's targets
are met, a 50 MW rising to 300 MW demonstration power plant will
start operating from 2014-16. Following the results of this trial,
information might be available around 2018 to inform future CCS
development in the UK. This means CCS might be deployable in other
power plants from the early 2020s. Therefore, CCS cannot realistically
play a part in meeting the UK's targets for reducing emissions
by 2020.
13. The EU energy package has effectively set the UK
a target to generate 40% of electricity from renewable sources
by 2020. After 2020, the generating capacity of renewables will
hopefully continue to increase. But, unfortunately it is likely
that from 2020-40, fossil fuels will need to remain some part
of electricity generation in the UK. Coal (and gas) with CCS may
potentially have lower emissions than gas without CCS, so could
be part of this mix, whilst helping to reduce emissions.
14. CCS could potentially be part of reducing emissions
in the UK, and elsewhere in the world, from 2020 to 2040. WDM
therefore supports the 300MW CCS demonstration project in the
UK as part of a research programme into CCS.
3. E.ON'S APPLICATION
FOR A
1600MW UNABATED COAL
POWER STATION
AT KINGSNORTH
3.1 Emissions from Kingsnorth
15. E.ON has applied to build a new 1600MW unabated coal
power station at Kingsnorth in Kent. E.ON are aiming for the plant
to be generating electricity before 2015. By 2015 the current
Kingsnorth plant will have to close having opted out of the EU
Large Combustion Plant Directive.
16. Kingsnorth would be a supercritical coal power station.
It is therefore likely to emit around 0.9 tonnes of CO2 for every
MWhour of electricity generated. This is in comparison with 1.2
tonnes per MWh for subcritical coal power plants, 0.4 tonnes per
MWh for combined cycle gas turbine power plants and 0 tonnes per
MWh for wind. If the new Kingsnorth plant operated for 60% of
the time, it would emit 7.6 million tonnes of CO2 a year;[20]
more than the total emissions of Ghana.5
17. The fourth assessment report of the IPCC released
in 2007 suggests that to keep the increase in global temperatures
to between 2°C and 2.4°C requires global emissions to
peak between now and 2015, at the latest, and then fall by between
50 and 85%, on 2000 levels, by 2050.6 For the UK to play its part
in reducing global emissions by 50-85% by 2050, UK emissions must
fall by 80-95% by 2050.7 For global emissions to start falling
from 2015, and for the UK to be on track for reducing by more
than 80% by 2050, the UK needs to reduce emissions by 40% on 1990
levels by 2020.
18. The UK government's current targets are to reduce
CO2 emissions by 26% by 2020 and 60% by 2050 compared to 1990
levels. However, in a speech hosted by WWF on 19 November 2007,
the Prime Minister said: "The evidence now suggests that,
as part of an international agreement, developed countries may
have to reduce their emissions by up to 80% [by 2050]. So we will
put this evidence to the committee on climate change and ask it
to advise us, as it begins to consider the first three five-year
budgets, on whether our own domestic target should be tightened
up to 80%".8
19. In UK government models of how to reduce emissions
by 2020, the electricity generating sector has to reduce the most.
For instance, in the 2007 Energy White Paper emissions pathways
are set for five sectors in the UK economy to meet the 60% by
2050 reduction target.9 These show possible contributions towards
CO2 reductions on 2000 levels for the energy, industry, residential,
services and transport sectors.
20. Of these, the White Paper suggests the energy sector
should make the largest emission reductions; 15% cuts on 2000
levels by 2020. For electricity this means reducing emissions
from 158.3 million tonnes of CO2 in 200010 to 135 million tonnes
in 2020. Unfortunately, these emission reduction pathways only
cut the UK's overall CO2 emissions by 14.5% on 1990 levels by
2020, rather than the 26% targeted in the climate change bill.
Based on the emissions pathway in the Energy White Paper, we estimate
that:
— For the UK as a whole to meet the 2020 target
set in the current climate change bill—26% over 1990 levels—emissions
from electricity generation need to be 26% below 2000 levels by
2020: 117 million tonnes of CO2.11
— For the UK to meet possible future emission reduction
targets—those which are in line with the science of preventing
dangerous climate change for the world's poor—total emissions
from electricity generation need to be 40% below 2000 levels by
2020—95 million tonnes of CO2.12
21. With coal power stations that will still be operating
in 2020, and current levels of emissions from gas power stations,
we estimate that total UK CO2 emissions from electricity generation
in 2020 will be at least 120 million tonnes of CO2 (see Appendix).13
14 This is:
— Higher than the level of emissions from electricity
generation by 2020 required to meet the current UK government
carbon reduction targets (117 million tonnes)
— Significantly more than the level of emissions
from electricity generation by 2020 for the UK to play its part
in preventing dangerous climate change (95 million tonnes).
22. Given the scale of the challenge the UK faces in
reducing emissions from electricity generation, it appears that
any single, new, unabated coal fired power station, such as Kingsnorth,
will significantly reduce the likelihood of hitting the government's
current, inadequate 2020 target and put beyond reach any globally
adequate target.
23. Furthermore, the energy industry is currently considering
a further six unabated coal fired power stations at Tilbury (Essex),
Blyth (Northumberland), Longannet (Fife), Cockenzie (East Lothian),
Ferrybridge (West Yorkshire) and High Marnham (Nottinghamshire).
Consenting Kingsnorth would likely prejudice decisions in favour
of these new coal power plants as well, destroying any ability
of the UK to meet its 2020 reduction targets.
3.2 Kingsnorth and the EU Emissions Trading Scheme
24. The reason the UK government thinks building new
unabated coal power stations may be consistent with its emission
reduction targets is because the electricity sector is covered
by the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). This means that whilst
emissions from electricity generation in the UK will not be reduced
by enough by 2020 to meet the UK government's target, emissions
may be "offset" through buying carbon credits through
the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation
(JI), or from elsewhere in the EU.
25. The way in which phase three of the EU ETS will operate
is not yet decided. However, the European Commission has proposed
that permits will be allocated centrally by the EU. The number
of permits available from within Europe will fall by around 2%
per year from 2012-20.
26. Buying ETS permits to emit will not be the only way
for electricity generators to acquire permits. If no global agreement
on tackling climate change post-2012 is reached, then one-third
of required emissions reductions from 2013-20 can be met through
purchasing JI and CDM credits from overseas. If a global agreement
is reached, then half of the additional emissions reductions required
under the ETS can be bought from outside Europe.15
27. Climate change cannot be tackled through accounting
tricks. Rich countries, with 18% of the world's population, account
for 54% of CO2 emissions. Developing countries, with 82% of the
world's population, account for 46% of emissions. It is a simple
fact that to tackle climate change:
— Rich countries like the UK have to reduce their
own emissions;
— And rich countries like the UK need to help some
developing countries, such as China, to curb the growth in, and
ultimately reduce, emissions
— And rich countries like the UK need to help some
other developing countries to avoid large increases in emissions.
28. This additional financing and technology transfer
requirement is already established in international law under
Article 4.7 of the UNFCCC. This requires that emissions reductions
in developing countries take place in as much as they are financed
by industrialised countries, leaving developing nations to focus
on poverty reduction and development priorities.
29. Phase three of the EU ETS will not reduce UK and
EU emissions from electricity generation by enough to prevent
global temperature increases of 2°C or more. By itself, the
EU ETS will not lead the UK and EU to becoming low carbon economies,
and the UK and EU will not develop the ideas and technology which
can be transferred to other parts of the world to help mitigate
climate change.
30. Furthermore, as the Environmental Audit Committee
are aware, there are serious problems with the CDM. There is not
space to revisit these problems here. The EAC has previously said:
"there is plenty of evidence that much CDM investment is
currently going into projects of dubious merit, concentrating
on the abatement of exotic gases; not only will such investment
do nothing to forestall the growth of carbon-intensive infrastructure
in developing prosperity, but it will do little to improve their
people's prosperity and quality of life".16
31. Additional measures beyond the ETS are needed to
cut electricity sector emissions as needed to prevent disastrous
climate change of 2°C or more. In some areas the UK government
recognises the need for additional measures, such as energy efficiency
and the development of renewable energy. The UK government therefore
also needs to recognise that additional measures are needed in
terms of consenting new power stations. One option, as adopted
by the US state of California, would be a greenhouse gas emissions
standard where a new power plant could only be built if it emits
less than a certain amount of CO2 for every unit of electricity
generated. For instance, a standard of 0.35 tonnes of CO2 for
every MWh of electricity produced would allow CCS coal and gas
to be built and non-CCS gas which made some use of the "waste"
heat.
3.3 Kingsnorth and "carbon capture ready"
32. E.ON claims that the new unabated coal power station
at Kingsnorth would be "carbon capture ready". The UK
government claims that it is supporting post-combustion CCS technology
in the demonstration project it is subsidising because such technology
can be added to pre-existing coal fired power stations; in countries
such as India and China as well as the UK. Therefore, the logic
of post-combustion CCS technology is that any coal power plant
is "carbon capture ready".
33. "Carbon capture ready" is a marketing ploy,
not a robust concept. Because CCS has not yet been properly demonstrated,
there can be no guarantee that CCS will one day be added to any
power station. Furthermore, the costs of CCS are not yet known.
The cost of CCS may be so exorbitant that there is no prospect
CCS will be added to coal power stations in the future. It may
be that various forms of renewable energy technology will be cheaper
and more effective at reducing emissions, and so from 2020 government
subsidies would be better spent on various renewable technologies
than CCS coal.
34. The earliest CCS technology could be added to Kingsnorth
would be the 2020s. As has already been highlighted, Kingsnorth's
operations before 2020 would make it extremely difficult for the
UK to meet emission reduction targets by 2020. If Kingsnorth began
operating in 2013, by the start of 2020 it would have emitted
53 million tonnes of CO2.[21]
3.4 Kingsnorth and international negotiations
35. The Bali decision on international climate change
negotiations charts a twin track towards a more ambitious climate
change agreement. On the one hand, talks will take place under
the UN's Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) aimed
at securing actions to limit and reduce emissions in countries
that currently have no legally-binding targets. On the other,
industrialised countries covered by the Kyoto Protocol will discuss
how to deepen and speed up reductions of their own and help finance
the transfer to and use of clean technologies in poorer nations.
36. In the context of these negotiations, which are due
to be completed in late 2009, rich, industrialised countries will
have two responsibilities. The first will be to commit themselves
to deeper cuts in a second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol,
post 2012. The second will be providing finance and technology
to facilitate poorer countries' emission limitation and reduction
activities. Both the financing and the corresponding activities
must be done in a way that is measurable, reportable and verifiable.
37. Countries with high historical emissions and surplus
wealth with which to rise to the challenge of financing clean
development and transferring new technology are obliged, under
Article 4.7 of the UNFCCC, to do so. Under the current negotiations,
this is already a critical issue and, if rich nations meet their
obligations, could unlock significant action in developing countries.
However, countries that are less responsible for climate change
and less able to afford its solutions will need convincing that
richer nations are cutting domestic emissions and willing to make
the necessary financial and technological transfers.
38. Approving new, unabated coal fired power plants would
undermine the UK's credibility as it would make meeting the targets
we set ourselves in the climate change bill significantly more
difficult, implying that poorer and less wealthy nations would
have to shoulder additional burden. New coal would also take the
UK further away from being able to fulfil its responsibilities
as a rich country under the Bali negotiations as it would absorb
finance in a carbon intensive activity and yield no new technology
to transfer.
4. KINGSNORTH AND
THE CCS DEMONSTRATION
PROJECT
39. E.ON has now entered Kingsnorth for the CCS demonstration
project competition. It is assumed that if Kingsnorth won the
competition, and E.ON's plans for Kingsnorth are consented, 300MW
of a new coal power plant would be CCS, with the remaining 1300MW
an unabated supercritical coal power station.
40. This means that if the government consents to Kingsnorth,
80% of it will emit CO2 at a rate of 0.9 tonnes of CO2 for every
MWh of electricity produced. The remaining 20% will emit at a
rate of 0.16 tonnes of CO2 for every MWh of electricity. This
means overall, a Kingsnorth with 300MW of CCS will emit at a rate
of 0.75 tonnes of CO2 for every MWh. This is still almost double
the emissions of a modern gas power plant.
41. In emissions terms, this means Kingsnorth would be
likely to emit 6.3 million tonnes of CO2 a year rather than 7.6
million as just a supercritical power plant. All the reasons given
in section 3 above would still apply to why a Kingsnorth plant
with 300MW of CCS and 1300MW of unabated coal should not be consented
by the UK government.
42. If Kingsnorth wins the CCS demonstration project
competition, the CCS plant cannot be used to justify the 1300MW
of unabated coal. The UK government should refuse consent to the
application for the 1600MW power plant at Kingsnorth. If the UK
government regards E.ON's CCS application as the best, it should
consent a 300MW plant and only a 300MW plant. If the 300MW plant
requires the rest of the new plant to be built, the UK government
should disqualify Kingsnorth from the CCS competition.
APPENDIX
43. We do not know of any comprehensive government estimate
or analysis of how the addition of new coal power will affect
the UK's electricity generation mix in 2020. We have tried to
estimate CO2 emissions from electricity generation in 2020 based
on known changes in capacity of coal power stations by 2020, but
these estimates do not include new coal power stations.
44. Six coal power stations are due to close in the UK
between now and 2015. In addition, a further eight will only be
able to operate for a maximum of 27.5% of the time.17 Given this,
we can estimate that the current capacity from coal and gas power
stations which will be operating in 2020 will be emitting 120
million tonnes of CO2. Any additional coal-fired power stations
will push CO2 emissions above this level.
45. The average annual emissions for 2005 and 2006 of
the three coal power plants which will still be operational in
2020 were 38.5 Mt of CO2. The average annual emissions for 2005
and 2006 of those coal power plants which will operate at a maximum
capacity of 27.5% in 2020 were 51.6 Mt of CO2. Average capacity
used for UK coal-fired power stations is 64%.18 We can therefore
estimate that emissions from these coal power plants will be 22.2
million tonnes of CO2 in 2020 (27.5/64 = 0.43. 0.43*51.6 = 22.2
Mt of CO2). CO2 emissions from electricity generation, minus coal,
were 60.9 million tonnes in 2005 and 57.8 million tonnes in 2006.
38.5+22.2+59.3 = 120 Mt of CO2.
Table 2
UK COAL POWER STATIONS
| Power station | GW
| Status by 201619 | Current emissions (2005+2006)20
|
| Aberthaw | 1.5 | Limited use21
| 12.6 |
| Cockenzie | 1.2 | Closing
| 7.6 |
| Cottam | 1 | Limited use
| 18.1 |
| Didcot A | 2 | Closing
| 13.5 |
| Drax | 4 | Operational
| 43.5 |
| Eggborough | 1 | Operational
| 14.9 |
| Ferrybridge | 2 | Half closing, half limited use
| 17.3 |
| Fiddler's Ferry | 2 | Limited use
| 16.9 |
| Ironbridge | 1 | Closing
| 6.4 |
| Kilroot | 1 | Limited use
| 4.9 |
| Kingsnorth | 2 | Closing
| 16.7 |
| Longannet | 2.3 | Operational
| 18.5 |
| Ratcliffe | 2 | Limited use
| 16.5 |
| Rugeley | 1 | Limited use
| 8.3 |
| Tilbury | 1.2 | Closing
| 10.1 |
| West Burton | 2 | Limited use
| 17.3 |
| | |
|
Table 2. UK coal-fired power stations operating in 2006 (various
sources).
June 2008
REFERENCES
1. IPCC. (2005). Carbon dioxide capture and storage:
Summary for policymakers. IPCC special report. September 2005.
2. BERR. (2007). CCS demonstrator will put UK ahead in
global race for clean coal. News release 2007/073. BERR. London.
09/10/07.
3. IPCC. (2005). Carbon dioxide capture and storage:
Summary for policymakers. IPCC special report. September 2005.
4. BERR. (2007). CCS demonstrator will put UK ahead in
global race for clean coal. News release 2007/073. BERR. London.
09/10/07.
5. In 2005 Ghana emitted 6.67 million tonnes of CO2 from
the burning of fossil fuels. US EIA. (2007). World carbon dioxide
emissions from the consumption and flaring of fossil fuels, 1980-2005.
US Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/tableh1co2.xls
6. IPCC. (2007). Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Summary
for Policymakers. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
04/05/07.
7. See also, for instance, Baer, P. and Mastrandrea,
M. (2006). High Stakes: Designing emissions pathways to reduce
the risk of dangerous climate change. IPPR. 08/11/06.
8. Brown, G. (2007). Speech hosted by WWF. 19/11/07.
9. DTI. (2007). Meeting the energy challenge: Energy
white paper. DTI. London. May 2007.
10. Defra. (2008). http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/globatmos/download/xls/gatb05.xls
11. The 2007 energy white paper has emissions reduction
pathways by sector. Energy has a pathway to reduce CO2 emissions
by 15% by 2020 on 2000 levels. This is the most of any sector.
When all sectors are calculated, total UK CO2 emissions are only
reduced by 14.5% on 1990 levels (8% on 2000 levels). Extrapolating
from this, for the UK to actually meet its 26% reduction target
by 2020, based on the relative contributions of sectors in the
energy white paper, the energy sector has to reduce emissions
by 43% on 1990 levels (26% on 2000 levels).
12. The assumptions for this are the same as above. For
the UK to reduce emissions by 40% on 1990 levels by 2020 would
require a 53% cut in CO2 emissions from electricity by 2020 on
1990 levels (40% on 2000 levels). None of these figures take into
account the extra reductions which will be required of UK electricity
generation to cancel out the planned increase in emissions from
UK aviation. The Secretary of State for Transport, Ruth Kelly,
has said: "any future growth in emissions from international
air journeys would be balanced by compensating reductions elsewhere".
13. The calculations for this estimate are in the Appendix.
It assumes that: three coal power stations which can keep operating
until 2020 continue to emit at their current rate of 38.5 million
tonnes of CO2. A further eight coal power stations can operate
at a maximum of 27.5% of the time, which will together be emitting
22.2 million tonnes of CO2. We have assumed gas power stations
continue to emit at the current rate of 59.3 million tonnes of
CO2. This is a total of 120 million tonnes of CO2. It is of course
only an estimate, but highlights the contradiction between targets
for reducing emissions and building new coal power stations.
14. Although this does not account for any increase in
use of gas to compensate for the reduced use of coal power stations.
15. EC. (2008). Questions and Answers on the Commission's
proposal to revise the EU Emissions Trading System. Memo 08/35.
Brussels. 23/01/08.
16. EAC. (2007). The EU Emissions Trading Scheme: Lessons
for the future. Environmental Audit Committee Second Report of
Session 2006-07. 20/05/07. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmselect/cmenvaud/70/70.pdf
17. BWEA. (2008). Renewable energy body calls for mixed
energy economy in response to Government's nuclear energy announcement.
BWEA News Release. 10/01/08.
18. The average capacity used for UK coal-fired power
stations was 63% in 2005 and 66% in 2006 http://stats.berr.gov.uk/energystats/dukes5_10.xls
19. Based on Defra. (2007). UK National Emissions Reduction
Plan for the implementation of revised Large Combustion Plant
Directive (2001/80/EC)—February 2006. Update No. 1 December
2007. Tables A3, A5 and A6.
20. EU ETS verified site emissions 2005-06 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/emission/pdf/internetgb2006.xls
21. Limited capacity is 27.5%
17
The indirect emissions from CCS coal and other technologies also
need to be identified. Power stations cause indirect emissions
from their construction, mining of fuel, transportation of fuel
and (for CCS) transporting and storing the CO2. Part of the CCS
demonstration project should be to produce figures for the indirect
emissions of the CCS coal power stations to be compared with the
indirect emissions of other energy options such as gas and forms
of renewable energy. Back
18
Subcritical with CCS: Efficiency reduced from 34-25%. This is
an increase in coal used of 26%. 15% of coal used still results
in CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. The relative emissions are
12.6 tonnes of CO2 for every 100 tonnes of CO2 emitted by a comparison
subcritical coal power plant. Back
19
Supercritical with CCS: Efficiency reduced from 43%-34%. This
is an increase in coal used of 16%. 15% of this coal used still
results in CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. The relative emissions
are 17.4 tonnes of CO2 for every 100 tonnes of CO2 emitted by
a comparison supercritical coal power plant. Back
20
Every hour it is operating Kingsnorth would emit 1,440 tonnes
of CO2 (0.9*1600). 60% of the year is 5256 hours. 5256*1440 =
7,568,640 Back
21
7.6 million tonnes a year*7 years = 53.2 million tonnes of CO2. Back
| 
