Memorandum submitted by the Equal Opportunities
Commission
INTRODUCTION
1. The Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC)
was set up by the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (the SDA). Its duties
are to work towards the elimination of discrimination between
women and men, to promote equality of opportunity between women
and men generally, and to keep under review the workings of the
Sex Discrimination and Equal Pay Acts. The Equal Opportunities
Commission (EOC) is a non-departmental public body, funded through
grant-in-aid. Our sponsor body is the Women and Equality Unit.
The Equal Opportunities Commission is the leading agency working
to eliminate sex discrimination in 21st Century Britain. We welcome
the opportunity to submit evidence to the Scottish Affairs Committee
Inquiry into poverty in Scotland.
2. Since the EOC was established in 1975,
women's position in society has changed rapidly and dramatically.
Women now make up around half of the labour force. Greater numbers
of women, generally those with higher educational qualifications,
are employed at a senior level in the public service and in professions
such as higher education and the law.
3. However, women as a whole are still more
at risk than men of having an income lower than the national average.
A woman on a low income is more likely to stay in poverty for
longer and more likely to experience hidden poverty.[40]
Women with low educational qualifications, lone parents (primarily
women) and older pensioners (also more likely to be women) are
particularly likely to be on low incomes. The risks are even higher
for minority ethnic women and women with disabilities.
4. Men and women experience poverty differently.
Poverty for men is linked to unemployment, low skills and regional
job opportunities. Men also use social support in different ways
to women, for example in Scotland most claimants of the jobseeker's
allowance are men (78%), whilst Income Support and Attendance
Allowance claimants are more likely to be women (65% and 71.2%).
A large proportion of these claimants are women since lone parents
and older people are more likely to be women (Scottish Executive,
2002).
INDICATORS OF
POVERTY IN
SCOTLAND
5. Cabinet Office data shows that the average
gross individual weekly income, for men in Scotland (£317)
is significantly higher than for women (£172); this is slightly
lower than across Great Britain where it is £342 for men
and £178 for women.
6. Households headed by a woman are
over-represented amongst those households experiencing poverty.
For example, the Scottish House Condition Survey reported that
50% of all households receiving income at or below income support
level are female (Scottish Homes, 1997). Even in households where
a woman is the Highest Income Householder (HIH) they are less
likely than those with a male HIH to have a bank account, savings
and investments or home contents insurance (Scottish Executive,
2001). Indeed, the Family Resource Survey for 1999-2000 reports
that more men contribute to a personal or employer's pension,
47% of men compared to 38% of women.
7. Lone parents are disproportionately
represented among those who face poverty. They are twice as likely
to be poor as compared with couples with children. Almost half
of all lone parents in Scotland are in income poverty, three times
the rate for couples with children; 90% of lone parents are women
(Palmer et al, 2004).
8. There is a widespread assumption in public
policy that women have a man's income to fall back on. This assumption
is out of touch with the reality of many women's lives today and
is a key reason for the greater risk of poverty faced by women.
Unfortunately, there are many incidences where women become trapped
in violent relationships because they are reliant on male partners
for financial security. In 2005-06 there were 45,796 cases of
domestic violence recorded by the police (Scottish Executive,
2006). 52% of these led to the recording of one or more criminal
offences. 87% of these were with a female victim and a male perpetrator,
where this information was recorded. 41% involved co-habitees
or spouses, 34% ex-partners or ex-spouses and 16% involved current
non- cohabiting partners. 90% of all recorded incidents took place
in the home.
9. Debt is also linked with low income;
a Citizens Advice study found that women were amongst those "most
likely to have debts associated with poverty, such as catalogue
debts and loans to home-collected credit providers" (Edwards,
2003).
10. Despite the fact that women live longer
than men, they experience a greater amount of ill health
during their lives. Women's health is adversely affected by greater
exposure to poverty, by childbearing and by old age. The Social
Exclusion Unit reported that `levels of depression are highest
among the mothers of young children, lone parents and those who
are economically inactive. 28% of lone parents have common mental
health problems' (SEU, 2004). Premature death is much more common
in Scotland than it is in England or Wales, for example the rate
of deaths amongst those aged 55—64 in Scotland has been
around a third higher than in England and Wales for the last 10
years (NPI, 2005). Suicide is over three times higher among adult
men than women in Scotland, this is a particular problem in rural
areas and statistics show there has been an upward trend over
the past 30 years (Scottish Executive, 2001). Suicide has been
linked with unemployment, lower socio-economic status and occupation
(particularly medicine and farming).
11. The position of some men, especially
those who are unemployed or economically inactive is also precarious.
Unemployment and economic inactivity rates are consistently
higher for those living in the most deprived areas.[41]
There are gender differences in the patterns of long-term unemployment
and the impact of unemployment also differs with age.
12. A quarter of Scotland's children
live in poverty, it is estimated that 46,000 children are
living in fuel poverty. CPAG report that 5,000 households with
children are without central heating and that half of low income
families blame the "cold, damp and draughty" nature
of their homes for their children's ill health; the same report
also found that nearly 1 in 5 of single parent families live in
fuel poverty (CAPG, 2002).
13. The Scottish Executive classifies settlements
of 3000 or less people to be rural. The proportion of people living
in the rural north and south of Scotland represents less
than 30% of the Scottish population (2001 Census). The impact
of rurality on women and men is considerably under researched,
nevertheless we know that it impacts on the way in which men and
women live their lives. Munro reports that women face, significant
unemployment levels even where they are well-qualified, there
are also high levels of out-migration of women for educational
and employment opportunities and perceived restriction of access
to business capital and land (Munro, 2001). The problems that
rural men face are also important, average earnings in rural Scotland
are 90% of those in the rest of Scotland (Futureskills, 2006).
Lower earnings are linked to some of the issues mentioned above
such as hidden poverty and lack of suitable/affordable housing.
Poverty in rural areas is said to have broadly similar effects
on the people who experience it to those people living in urban
areas. However the causes of poverty in rural areas are different
eg poverty is more dispersed and sometimes regarded as "invisible",
there is lower take up of benefits, lower pay and restricted labour
market opportunities.[42]
Just as the causes of poverty are different the solutions to poverty
in rural areas are also likely to be different; these solutions
will also have to be different for women and men.
CAUSES OF
WOMEN'S
POVERTY
14. Women's employment patterns contribute
to their levels of poverty. Women's working history tends to show
an M-shaped profile—high level of labour market participation
when they are young followed by a fall when they break from their
jobs to look after children, followed by another increase from
their mid-thirties. Women with low educational attainment are
most heavily penalised in the labour market as they tend to take
longer breaks from the labour market and find it more difficult
to return to work.
15. The pay gap for women working full time
is 12% and 34% for women working part time (EOC, 2006). This gap
represents a lifetime of pay discrimination for women and is a
contributing factor to women and children's higher levels of poverty
and women pensioners' poverty.
16. Occupational segregation and caring
responsibilities also contribute to the pay gap between men and
women. A third of all employees in Scotland earn less then £6.50
per hour. Half of all part-time workers earn less than £6.50
per hour, most of them are women (Palmer et al, 2002). Many of
the sectors where women dominate are poorly paid—they are
sometimes referred to as the 5 C's: cooking, cleaning, clerical,
caring and cashiering—part time work is common in these
low paying, low status occupations. Women tend to have greater
caring responsibilities than men and so opt for part time work
to balance their responsibilities, again this to contributes to
lower rates of pay for women.
17. Lack of childcare and access to flexible
working arrangements can create additional barriers for women
who want to work. This is a particular issue for women in rural
areas where provision of after school care or nurseries can be
very low indeed. It is also an issue for minority ethnic women
who find it difficult to access childcare that is culturally appropriate
for their children (EOC, 2006). In a survey conducted for the
EOC, 41% of those with children between six and nine felt that
their chances of getting a job or better job were limited because
of difficulties with childcare.
18. Poverty is a serious issue for older
women in Scotland. Women's working patterns over a lifetime are
very different to men's and this has a direct impact on their
salaries and pensions. Less than 12% of women receive the full
basic state pension based on their own contributions, compared
with 91% of men. Only one-third of women have any private pension
income. Women's average income in retirement is 53% of men's average
retirement income (ONS, 2004). Reform of the pension system is
crucial if women's poverty in old age is to be tackled effectively
and we welcome the government's Pensions White Paper and its commitment
to conduct a gender impact assessment on the proposals. The EOC
believes that the pension system should be changed so that periods
of unpaid caring work in both private and state pension arrangements
are recognised. The EOC would like to see measures introduced
which ensure that the reforms deliver for everyone and in particular
to increase eligibility to the full state pension for the 45-65
age group and ensure that carers and the lowest paid can accrue
an adequate income in retirement.
19. Set alongside the undervaluing of "women's
work", hidden differences in intra-household resource distribution
and lack of access to childcare and flexible working mean that
many Scottish women remain in a position of relative insecurity,
dependence and powerlessness.[43]
IMPACT OF
GOVERNMENT POLICY
ON POVERTY
20. Gender mainstreaming is essential if
the government is to fully appreciate the differential impact
of its anti-poverty strategies on women and men. In some policy
areas, the priority accorded to gender equality has been very
limited. The EOC is concerned that some of the Scottish Executive's
strategies, such as the lead strategy "Closing the Opportunity
Gap" appear to have a positive vision about equality but
do not demonstrate a practical understanding of equalities issues
and their relationship with poverty.
21. The EOC also note that key strategic
documents such as "Workforce Plus" and the NEET[44]
strategy "More Choices, More Chances" lack a clear steer
on gender. For example, More Choices, More Chances states that:
"LFS data also shows that the proportion
of young people NEET increases with age: 10% of 16 year olds compared
with 17.5% of 19 year olds are classified as NEET. This trend
is similar for both males and females, although a greater proportion
of females (19.5%) than males (15.6%) are NEET, due possibly to
child and other caring responsibilities"
(More Choices, More Chances, Scottish Executive 2006,
page 5).
It is concerning that the strategy acknowledges
the gender dimension of the NEET group early on but it fails to
provide further guidance for delivery agencies on the obvious
issues for girls in this group and the longer term impact that
unemployment and inactivity in this stage of their lives can have
for the future. The lack of gender focus in Scottish Executive
thinking is also evidenced in the Social Focus on Deprivation
which lacks gender disaggregated statistics.
22. Without a clear steer from the Scottish
Executive on the gender dimension of poverty public sector agencies
will find it difficult to address poverty issues effectively.
Different approaches will clearly be required to support (for
example) women lone parents out of poverty, than may be needed
by young male ex-offenders. While local delivery agencies may
recognise this, national strategies often do not.
23. Actions taken by the Scottish Executive
to address the gender dimension of social policies have been insufficient
to develop and sustain coherent gender mainstreaming and political
momentum across all policy areas. Gender mainstreaming is particularly
important as the Gender Equality Duty will come in to force in
April 2007 requiring public bodies to demonstrate action to tackle
gender inequality in policy making, employment and service delivery.
If public bodies are not able to implement gender impact assessments
it is unlikely that they will meet the Gender Duty effectively.
EXISTING GOOD
PRACTICE
24. However, there is good practice to be
learned from. The Scottish Executive already has some experience
of mainstreaming equalities issues in to policy and practice which
could be usefully disseminated. As the managing authority for
European Structural Funds in Scotland the Executive has been exposed
to a whole range of projects which have mainstreamed equalities
and tackled the causes of poverty. This approach has been successfully
proven and the EOC would hope that the Scottish Executive could
disseminate this learning to delivery agencies so that gender
issues are taken into account in the early stages of policy development.
25. There are many other examples of work
which mainstream gender in policy making and practice, as this
example from Job Centre Plus demonstrates:
Work Works at Job Centre Plus
In his 2003 Budget the Chancellor Gordon Brown committed to provide "improved support for lone parents, with a flexible fund to improve access to debt advisory services and pilots of a new work search premium to cover the extra costs of looking for work". Following on from this the Secretary of State aimed to test the impact of providing NVQ/SNVQ level 3 training and their effect on improving employment chances. Job Centre Plus developed a pilot called "Work Works" which began on 25 October 2004 in the six "Work Works" metropolitan areas of Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds, Liverpool, London and Manchester. In Glasgow, Job Centre Plus developed a partnership with Glasgow City Council and established the following objectives for their pilot:
— To find out what interest there was amongst lone parents in achieving a higher-level qualifications which will assist them in obtaining employment in a higher paid job, ie a supervisory/leader role.
— To understand if there was commitment amongst lone parents to undertake a training lasting up to two years whilst remaining on benefit.
— To establish what effect an SNVQ Level 3 training would have for lone parents employment rate in an industry that is not traditionally associated with high levels of lone parents.
Job Centre Plus agreed that they would offer training in joinery and carpentry to female lone parents because:
— In Scotland there is a boom in the construction industry and a lack of skilled people, so trainees would have a high chance of employment.
— Research by Glasgow City Council showed that there was a demand amongst service users for female workers to do jobs in peoples homes.
— Women are under represented across the construction industry and this training would help address the ongoing gender imbalance.
The pilot offers trainees the following:
— A two year training programme for an SNVQ level 3 in joinery and carpentry.
— Study times between 9.30 and 2.30, which fits with school and nursery times.
— During training trainees continue to receive their benefits and receive free childcare and free travel to the training centre within the city boundaries.
— Trainees receive a weekly training premium and a Christmas bonus.
— The course is delivered on a term time basis to allow maximum participation for female lone parents.
— Participants are guaranteed a job with Glasgow City Council on completion of the training. In addition, newly qualified joiners can expect to earn £21,000.
Job Centre Plus previously ran a gas-fitting course for lone parents, however this pilot is the first time that they have targeted female lone parents.
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26. Gender has frequently been used to highlight the
"problems" of poverty, for example underachieving boys
and single mums and it is important to challenge this deficit
approach. There are some good examples form regeneration work
which demonstrate how addressing gender can make a significant
difference in poor communities. Oxfam have facilitated a number
of projects where gender is a focus. The Glasgow Women and Social
Inclusion Working Group is one example. This group has worked
with regeneration decision makers to raise awareness of gender
issues and to use gender impact assessment tools to support regeneration
plans. Oxfam is also currently working in partnership with South
Lanarkshire Council to build gender analysis into the development
and delivery of Scottish council regeneration policy and practice.[45]
WHAT NEEDS
TO CHANGE
27. Significant work has been undertaken in Scotland
in recent years to address poverty and social exclusion. However,
less attention has been given to why poverty affects more women
than men. More work is needed to identify practical solutions.
This is particularly the case in relation to the additional disadvantages
poverty often brings with it, in terms of access to wider services.
28. The gender equality duty will require that this approach
changes. Public spending exercises should ensure that recipients
of funding are required to demonstrate how the services they offer,
whether in provision of research or a direct service provision
will consider gender issues.
29. The Government and the Scottish Executive should
publish disaggregated statistics to provide an informed baseline
for effective policy making. Unfortunately, statistics which are
disaggregated by gender are not routinely published by departments,
and it is especially difficult to get reliable data which is disaggregated
by race and gender or gender and disability. Without reliable
data is very difficult for public agencies to identify gaps in
their provision or potential issues for women and so it is easy
for agencies to continue to offer 'one size fits all' solutions
to poverty which we know does not help the position of women.
The example below demonstrates how government leadership on data
collection is vital and important for national policy making:
Gathering information and data
Data collection and exchange: Canada and Sweden
In 1997, Canadian Federal-Provincial/Territorial Ministers commissioned a project to create economic gender equality indicators to be made available for use in public policy decision-making processes. The indicators provide broader data on women's experiences in the economy, including total income, paid and unpaid work and education and training. Sweden, since 1994, has a well-developed system of disaggregating and publishing statistics by gender through Statistics Sweden, its central statistical office. For some years the Canadians and Swedes have also engaged in a bilateral, biannual exchange of good practice on statistics for equality involving government, academics and practitioners.
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30. The EOC welcomes the Scottish Executive's new Multiple
and Complex Needs initiative which aims to improve public services
for those who are hard to reach. We note particularly the Aberdeen
Carers project to support male carers and the Greater Glasgow
Health Board project to develop gender specific guidance for those
affected by poverty.[46]
31. The EOC believes that it is vital that high level
anti-poverty strategies not only identify gender issues as important
but seek to develop paths to ensure that gender is embedded in
practice. Future anti-poverty policy in Scotland must take issues
of multiple identity and discrimination into account. Ethnicity,
faith/belief, age, disability, geography and sexual orientation
are all aspects which combine with gender and poverty to produce
different patterns of discrimination and deprivation. Any cross-cutting
initiative to address deprivation needs to engage with the multiplicity
of issues that face people in poverty.
Equal Opportunities Commission
October 2006
REFERENCES
Brown, U (2000) Race, Ethnicity and Poverty, Briefing
Sheet 12, The Scottish Poverty Information Unit, Glasgow Caledonian
University.
CPAG in conjunction with Scottish Poverty Information Unit
(2002) Poverty in Scotland 2002—People, places and policies,
London: CPAG.
CPAG (2006) Child Poverty Action Group's Web site:
http://www.childreninscotland.org.uk/docs/pubs/fuelpoverty.pdf£search=%22Child%20Poverty%
20Action%20Group%E2%80%99s%20Poverty%3A%20the%20facts%22
Edwards, S (2003) In too deep, CAB clients' experience
of debt, London: Citizens Advice.
EOC (2003) Research Findings, Gender and Poverty in Britain,
Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission.
EOC (2006) Facts about Women and Men in Scotland 2006,
Glasgow: Equal Opportunities Commission.
EOC (2006) Moving on Up? Visible Minority Ethnic Women
at Work, A Summary of the first phase of research for Scotland,
Glasgow: Equal Opportunities Commission.
Futureskills Scotland (2006) The Labour Market in Rural
Scotland—An Introduction, Glasgow: Futureskills Scotland.
General Register Office for Scotland (2004) Scotland's
Population 2004—The Registrar General's Annual Review
of Demographic Trends http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/statistics/library/annrep/rgs-annual-review-2004/chapter-2/index.html
Munro, G (2001) Researching Women in Scotland's Rural Economy.
Researching women in rural Scotland, Report of Conference organised
by the Scottish Executive Inverness, 1 June 2001.
NPI, New Policy Institute Poverty Indicators http://www.poverty.org.uk/indicators/s32.htm
Palmer, G, Carr, C and Kenway (2004) Monitoring Poverty
and Social Exclusion Scotland 2004, Joseph Rowntree
Trust http://www.jrf.org.uk/bookshop/eBooks/185935260X.pdf
ONS (2003) Population Trends Summer 2003, Office of
National Statistics.
Scottish Executive (2001) National Framework for the Prevention
of Suicide and Deliberate Self Harm in Scotland, A Consultation.
Scottish Executive.
Scottish Executive (2001) Scottish Household Survey, Bulletin
5, 2001, Edinburgh: Scottish Executive.
Scottish Executive (2002) Social Focus on Women and Men,
Edinburgh: Scottish Executive.
Scottish Executive (2003) Implementation of the National
Strategy to Address Domestic Abuse in Scotland Progress Report,
Edinburgh: Scottish Executive.
Scottish Executive (2004) Statistical Bulletin, Criminal
Justice Series: CrJ/2005/9: Domestic Abuse Recorded by the Police
in Scotland, 1 January—31 December 2004 , Edinburgh:
Scottish Executive.
Scottish Executive (2005) Scottish Economic Statistics
2005, Edinburgh: Scottish Executive.
Scottish Executive (2006) Criminal Justice series CrJ/2006/07
Sept 2006, Edinburgh: Scottish Executive.
Scottish Executive (2006) http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Statistics/SIMD/Overview
Scottish Homes (1997) Scottish House Condition Survey
1997, Scottish Homes.
SEU (2004), Mental Health and Social Exclusion, London:
Social Exclusion Unit.
40
Hidden Poverty-explores the complexities of poverty. Poverty
is not simply about going without but it is also about poor health,
stigma, isolation and stress experienced as part of the poverty. Back
41
Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation identifies small area
concentrations of multiple deprivation across Scotland. Back
42
For more information on women and poverty in rural Scotland
go to http://www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/kd01/maroon/rwrs-05.asp Back
43
Rosenblatt G., Rake K. (2003) Gender and poverty briefing, Fawcett
Society, available on www.oxfamgb.org/ukpp/resources/downloads/gender_and_poverty.pdf Back
44
NEET Group-at any one time, some 35,000 of young people in Scotland
aged between 16-19 are not in Education, Employment or Training
(NEET). Back
45
For more information about Oxfam and South Lanarkshire partnership
go to http://www.genderwise.co.uk/Projects/southLanarkshireCouncil.html Back
46
For a leaflet on the Multiple and Complex Needs Initiative go
to http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/People/Social-Inclusion/17415/mcninfo Back
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