Memorandum 142
Submission from the School of Engineering
and Electronics and the School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh
1. THE CURRENT
AND POTENTIAL
ROLES OF
ENGINEERING AND
ENGINEERS IN
GEO-ENGINEERING
SOLUTIONS TO
CLIMATE CHANGE
Many of the greatest challenges facing society
today will require innovative solutions at the interface between
GeoSciences and Engineering. Examples include the response to
climate change, efficient exploitation/management or Earth resources,
energy, and natural hazards.
While many climate changes will impact on the
UK (eg, floods, droughts, severe winters, and forest fires), an
increase in the number of extreme rainfall or storm events is
expected to have the most significant implications in Scotland.
To respond to the challenge, some universities
have set up mechanism to cooperate across the GeoScience and Engineering,
such is the case of The University of Edinburgh.
The role of engineering and engineers in geo-engineering
is to provide solutions to adapting to the impacts of climate
change, including:
- water resources management on very large
catchment scale;
- flood retention structures; and
The role is also to minimise emissions, applying
different measures that include:
- energy efficiency and microgeneration;
- waste reduction and recycling;
- carbon capture and storage;
- conversion of biomass to gaseous fuel and
biochar (carbon-negative technology); and
- optimal remediation of contaminated land.
Geo-engineers must be encouraged to interact
more with society as a whole, in a subject increasingly driven
by a regulatory framework (hence requiring an engagement with
environmental law), with solutions that may involve actions of
buy-in by the majority (hence social sciences and science-led
policy) as well as the skilled practitioner.
2. NATIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH
ACTIVITY, AND
RESEARCH FUNDING,
RELATED TO
GEO-ENGINEERING,
AND THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN,
AND INTERFACE
WITH, THIS
FIELD AND
RESEARCH CONDUCTED
TO REDUCE
GREENHOUSE GAS
EMISSIONS
Ongoing national and international research
activity related to geo-engineering and adaptation to the impact
of climate change includes:
2.1 Flood Retention Structures (International
funding-EU INTERREG SAWA)
There are many types of Flood Retention Structures
(FRS) performing various roles. However, while most of them detain
runoff for later release thus avoiding downstream flooding problems,
some of them do perform other tangible albeit less "visible"
roles such as pollution removal, infiltration for groundwater
recharge, source of raw water for potable water supply and provision
of recreational facilities. A multi-functional retention structure
will in principle be desirable but may not be appropriate or even
advisable depending on the particular circumstances of the catchment
under consideration. The absence of a classification scheme for
FRS leads to confusion about the status of individual structures.
A classification scheme would therefore greatly enhance communication
between practitioners. A rapid classification methodology for
FRS is relevant for stakeholders such as local authorities and
non-governmental organizations, and it would greatly assist them
with planning issues. Finally, an insight into the relative importance
of variables defining different FRS for various applications such
as flood management, sustainable drainage, recreation, environmental
protection and/or landscape aesthetics will help practitioners
to optimise the design, operation and management of FRS. Decisions
such as this one are currently made ad hoc and are frequently
based only on political considerations.
Ongoing national and international research
activity related to geo-engineering and reducing greenhouse gas
emissions includes:
2.2 Second generation biofuels and local energy
systems
First-generation biofuels, mainly from corn
and other food based crops are being used as a direct substitute
for fossil fuels in transport. However, they are available in
limited volumes that do not make them serious replacements for
petroleum. Second generation biofuels from forest and crop residues,
energy crops and municipal and construction waste, will arguably
reduce net carbon emission, increment energy efficiency and reduce
energy dependency, potentially overcoming the limitations of first
generation biofuels. Nevertheless, implementation of second generation
biofuels technology will require a sustainable management of energy,
or development of local bio-energy systems. Locally produced second
generation biofuels will exploit local biomass to optimize their
production and consumption.
2.3 Conversion of biomass to gaseous fuel
and biochar (carbon-negative technology)
Design of novel processing technology to gasify
biomass using smouldering combustion leading to more efficient
and smaller reactors. Biochar boost plant growth and is storage
in soil layers. Production of biochar can be coupled with the
simultaneous production of gas and liquid fuels from biomass to
reach self-energize processing.
2.4 Methane emission abatement via methonotrophic
bacteria living in soils and compost
Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, with a global
warming potential 23 times higher than CO2 (mole basis, 100 year
timeframe), chemically stable and persist in the atmosphere over
time scales of a decade to centuries or longer, and thus methane
emission has a long-term influence on climate. Landfills represent
a significant source of methane. Although, for new landfills,
the European Community Landfill Directive 1999 imposes strict
engineering requirements to capture CH4 emissions, CH4 escape
through the landfill cover of existing, non-engineered landfills
remains a significant problem in the UK. Landfill CH4 emission
abatement can be achieved by methane oxidizing bacteria (methanotrophs),
which may be present in biowaste compost produced from biodegradable
fractions of municipal waste.
2.5 Diversion of waste to energy
The use of biofuels for transport is becoming
of increasing importance for a number of reasons, such as environmental
concerns relating to climate change, depletion of fossil fuel
reserves, and reduction of reliance on imports. This is leading
to international, national and regional focus upon alternative
energy sources. In Europe, the European Commission has proposed
indicative targets for biofuel substitution of 5.75% by 2010.
A potential source for low-cost biofuel (ie, bio-ethanol) production
is to utilize lignocellulosic materials such as crop residues,
grasses, sawdust, wood chips, and solid waste. Additionally, European
legislative pressures target for minimising landfill use in European
countries, and the amount of biodegradable municipal solid waste
(BMSW) going to landfill must be reduced by 25% by 2010, 50% by
2013 and 65% by 2020. Thus, the BMSW fraction may be considered
an alternative sustainable source of bio-ethanol.
2.6 Study of emissions from large subsurface
fires (peat, coal, landfill)
Large smouldering fires are rare events at the
local scale but occur regularly at a global scale. These fires
smoulder below ground very slowly for extended periods of time
(weeks or years) and are large contributors to biomass consumption
and green house gas emissions to the atmosphere. Subsurface coal
fires in China alone are estimated to contribute 2-3% of global
carbon emissions. The largest peat fires registered to date took
place in Indonesia during the El Nino dry season of 1997 and released
between 13-40% of the global fossil fuel emissions of that year.
The emission from smouldering peat and coal need to be measured
and quantify. Current knowledge is inadequate and hinders proper
understanding of the problem.
2.7 Effective extinction method for subsurface
fires and coal fires
Little technical research has been undertaken
on this subject and understanding of how to tackle subsurface
fires which are extremely difficult to extinguish. In addition
to the environmental costs, associated financial costs of smouldering
mines run into millions of dollars from loss of coal, closure
of mines, damage to environment and fire fighting efforts.
3. THE PROVISION
OF UNIVERSITY
COURSES AND
OTHER FORMS
OF TRAINING
RELEVANT TO
GEO-ENGINEERING
IN THE
UK
Current university courses relevant to geo-engineering,
offered by the School of Engineering and Electronics, include:
3.1 Sustainable development and new Engineering
1 Workshops
New workshops for Engineering 1 involve teams
of students working on posters and presentation related to sustainability,
global warming, energy security, carbon offsetting and renewable
energy issues, as well as professional ethics and impact of technology
in society.
3.2 Infrastructure Management and Sustainability
3
This course provides an opportunity for students
to explore further sustainable development issues and to focus
on the role and practices of engineers in creating a sustainable
world.
3.3 Environmental Engineering 3
This course presents an open approach to Environmental
Engineering. Particular emphasis is given to new environmental
challenges and how to contribute to increasing sustainable economic
growth.
3.4 Water and Wastewater Systems 3
This course extends the hydrology and water
resources course content of the second year Water Resources course
into fundamentals of water quality, and water and wastewater treatment.
The content covers the practical considerations to be made resulting
from the demand for water from community development by considering
water consumption, water sources, water quality and disposal.
Specific reference is made to fundamental water and wastewater
treatment issues and technologies such as the following:
- Drinking Water Quality Standards and Water
Treatment;
- Coagulation and Flocculation;
- Sludge Blanket Clarifiers; and
- Flotation Systems; Characterisation of
Organic Effluent; Sewage Treatment (primary treatment units);
and Biological Treatment.
3.5 Water and Wastewater Systems 4
The topics of water quality and water and wastewater
systems are continued from the 3rd year course Water Resources.
Specific reference is made to advanced water and wastewater treatment
options such as the following:
- Hydraulics of Filtration;
- Disinfection and Fluoridation;
- Water Softening and Iron and Manganese
Removal;
- Environmental Water Microbiology;
- Rotating Biological Contactors;
- Activated Sludge Process; and
- Sludge Treatment and Disposal.
Relevant case studies and recent research are
also discussed.
3.6 Contaminated Land and remediation technologies
Research of in-situ land and groundwater remediation
remains one priority technology area. Significant advances are
required in groundwater treatment systems to make them more efficient
and reliable. Traditional pump and treat technologies, for example
are very inefficient at addressing low levels of contaminants
that have migrated over large areas. This course explores traditional
and novel remediation technologies.
4. THE STATUS
OF GEO-ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGIES IN
GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY
AND ACADEMIA
There is a close collaboration between academia,
industry and government, to develop geo-engineering technologies.
Some examples include:
4.1 Constructed treatment wetlands
The self-organizing map (SOM) model was applied
to elucidate heavy metal removal mechanisms and to predict heavy
metal concentrations in experimental constructed wetlands treating
urban runoff. A newly developed SOM map showed that nickel in
constructed wetland filters is likely to leach under high conductivity
in combination with low pH in winter. In contrast, influent pH
and conductivity were not shown to have clear relationships with
copper concentrations in the effluent, suggesting that the mobility
of copper was not considerably affected by salt increase during
winter. The accuracy of prediction with SOM was highly satisfactory,
suggesting heavy metals can be efficiently estimated by applying
the SOM model with input variables such as conductivity, pH, temperature
and redox potential, which can be monitored in real time. Moreover,
domain understanding was not required to implement the SOM model
for prediction of heavy metal removal efficiencies.
4.2 Sustainable drainage systems
This research assesses the performance of the
next generation of permeable pavement systems incorporating ground
source heat pumps. The relatively high variability of temperature
in these systems allows for the potential survival of potentially
pathogenic organisms within the sub-base. Supplementary carbon
dioxide monitoring indicated relatively high microbial activity
on the geotextile and within the lower parts of the sub-base.
Anaerobic processes were concentrated in the space around the
geotextile, where carbon dioxide concentrations reached up to
2,000 ppm. Nevertheless, the overall water treatment potential
was high with up to 99% biochemical oxygen demand removal. The
research enables decision-makers for the first time to assess
public health risks, treatment requirements and efficiencies,
and the potential for runoff recycling. The relatively low temperatures
and minor water quality data variability within the systems provided
good evidence for the relatively high level of biological process
control leading to a low risk of pathogen growth.
4.3 Waste to energy
Energy from waste is the recovery of renewable
energy in the form of electricity and/or heat from residual waste.
Gaseous and liquid fuels can also be recovered from waste as an
alternative to electricity generation. Energy from waste can make
a significant contribution to oil-independence and climate protection
with clean power, heat, and vehicle fuels. Ongoing research in
energy from waste technologies includes optimisation of biological
and thermal processes to produce liquid fuels and added-value
products from biodegradable fractions of organic waste diverted
from landfill sites.
4.4 Smouldering combustion for biomass conversion
See 2.3 and 2.7.
5. GEO-ENGINEERING
AND ENGAGING
YOUNG PEOPLE
IN THE
ENGINEERING PROFESSION
Many professional associations have specific
mechanisms to engage young people in the engineering profession.
These include:
5.1 CIWEM, Chartered Institution of Water
and Environmental Management
See .http://ciwem.org.
The CIWEM is the leading professional and examining
body for scientists, engineers, other environmental professionals,
students and those committed to the sustainable management and
development of water and the environment.
5.2 IEMA, Institute of Environmental Management
and Assessment
See http://www.iema.net/
The Institute's aim is to promote the goal of
sustainable development through improved environmental practice
and performance.
5.3 SHG networking meetings, The Scottish
Hydrological Group
See http://www.hydrology.org.uk/about_regional_scottish.htm
The Society caters for all those with an interest
in the inter-disciplinary subject of hydrology, and aims to promote
interest and scholarship in scientific and applied aspects of
hydrology and to foster the involvement of its members in national
and international activities.
5.4 IWA, International Water Association
See http://www.iwahq.org/
The goal of IWA is to fulfil the present and
future needs of the water and wastewater industries. This requires
the continuous development of a workforce which is both adequate
in size, capable in skills and strong in leadership. Young water
professionals (students and professionals in the water sector
and under the age of 35) are the future of the water sector, and
therefore the future of the IWA
5.5 EGU, European Geoscience Union
See http://www.egu.eu/
EGU is a dynamic, innovative, and interdisciplinary
learned association devoted to the promotion of the sciences of
the Earth and its environment and of planetary and space sciences
and cooperation between scientists.
6. THE ROLE
OF ENGINEERS
IN INFORMING
POLICY-MAKERS
AND THE
PUBLIC REGARDING
THE POTENTIAL
COSTS, BENEFITS
AND RESEARCH
STATUS OF
DIFFERENT GEO-ENGINEERING
SCHEMES
An example of how ongoing research conducted
in the academia by engineers informs policy-makers and the public
includes:
6.1 Farm constructed wetlands-"Governments"
of Scotland, Northern Ireland and Ireland
This research comprises the scientific justification
for the Farm Constructed Wetland (FCW) Design Manual for Scotland
and Northern Ireland. Moreover, this document addresses an international
audience interested in applying wetland systems in the wider agricultural
context. Farm constructed wetlands combine farm wastewater (predominantly
farmyard runoff) treatment with landscape and biodiversity enhancements,
and are a specific application and class of Integrated Constructed
Wetlands (ICW), which have wider applications in the treatment
of other wastewater types such as domestic sewage. The aim of
this review paper is to propose guidelines highlighting the rationale
for FCW, including key water quality management and regulatory
issues, important physical and biochemical wetland treatment processes,
assessment techniques for characterizing potential FCW sites and
discharge options to water bodies. The paper discusses universal
design, construction, planting, maintenance and operation issues
relevant specifically for FCW in a temperate climate, but highlights
also catchment-specific requirements to protect the environment.
Nevertheless, future needs have been identified:
6.2 Need for close collaboration between GeoSciences
and Chemical/Electrical/Mechanical Engineering to define the entire
CCS chain
It is going to be difficult to formulate an
appropriate multi-objective function to optimize CCS.
6.3 Matching of sources and sinks
This is what makes the north of the UK the obvious
place to carry out RD&D.
6.4 Need for a regulatory framework
It's difficult to see how someone is going to
start pumping CO2 underground if one is not sure of what liabilities
will be there in the longer term. Not sure what similarities can
be drawn from the disposal of spent nuclear materials.
6.5 Need to explore all capture options (ie
pre-, post- and oxy-combustion)
Here there is a strong lobby that wishes to
focus only on one technology and this is not a clever choice,
given that there are no existing plants.
6.6 Need for people trained in all of the
above
CCS MSc (planned to start from September 2009)
will be developed, where we will be involved.
September 2008
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