4 Causes
In this chapter we explore why young people carry
knives and factors influencing violent behaviour.
Protection
57. "Protection" tends to be the number
one motive given for illegal knife-carrying. A commonly cited
figure, taken from the Home Office's 2006 Offending Crime and
Justice Survey, is that 85% of young people carry to protect themselves.
Other studies have discovered similar findings. Behind legitimate
use, the most common reason given by knife-carriers to the 2008
MORI Youth Survey was "to protect myself". In Why
Carry a Weapon?, all focus groups bar one stated that "protection"
was the primary reason why young people their age chose to carry
a knife.[80] Young people
claim they need a weapon to protect themselves because they feel
unsafe.
58. Ian Levy, the father of stab victim Robert Levy,
pointed out the weakness of these surveys: "almost all young
people you ask, will say they carry it for protection, because
that is the simplest and easiest reason to justify the possession
of a knife."[81]
We accept that we should treat the figures with caution, and that
fear does not excuse weapon-carrying, but it was clear from other
evidence that a perceived need for protection does play a role
in the decision of many young people to carry knives.
59. This fear tends to be exacerbated by a presumption
that others will be carrying knives. One witness who gave evidence
anonymously with The Prince's Trust and who used to carry a knife
compared the situation to an arms race:
It was not like I was carrying it because I was
going to go and stab someone, it was just other people were doing
it so it was just like an arms race. I think in a wayand
this is a personal opinionto make it equal, governments
have nuclear weapons because someone else has got nuclear weapons.
It is to defend ourselves. No-one wants to use it but it is just
there as a deterrent.[82]
60. Some witnesses pointed to the issue of "territoriality"
as a key factor in why some young people felt the need for protection.
A recent study published by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation found
that, for 13-17 year old boys and to a lesser extent men in their
twenties in particular, identity has become strongly linked to
neighbourhood, which often expresses itself through violent conflict
with groups from other neighbourhoods. A young offender from London
interviewed for Why Carry a Weapon? described how this
affected his decision to carry a knife:
In my area, I'm going to see my girl and she
lives in Palmers Green, I have to go through Wood Green to get
to Palmers Green, and I've got beef with Wood Green, man. I get
shot, or like if they don't have a strap on them then they chasing
up trying to move me up. I'd rather have a shank and flick it
out and start wetting man than get stabbed myself. Cos if you
have a shank, and they haven't, they're gonna back off.[83]
61. Even those who do not form part of a group linked
to a territory may find themselves at risk of attack when crossing
into another area.[84]
An anonymous witness giving evidence with The Prince's Trust explained
that the majority of young people in his community in Basildon
would only carry a knife if they were going into an unfamiliar
area and another giving evidence with 11 MILLION told us that
he was at risk of mugging or assault if venturing onto another
estate in Merseyside.[85]
62. The perceived need for protection is linked to
experiences of victimisation: in the 2008 MORI Youth Survey, 27%
of young people who claimed to have been a victim of crime reported
carrying a knife at least once or twice afterwards, compared to
20% of non-victims; 7% reported carrying a knife three or four
times compared to 4% of non-victims.[86]
Dr Iain Brennan told us that British Crime Survey data also indicated
that being a victim of violence in the previous 12 months increased
the likelihood of carrying a weapon.[87]
63. There is also a relationship with lack of trust
in 'natural protectors', such as the police, as explained in Why
Carry a Weapon?:
It was unanimous from all 18 participants that
the police and their parents could not protect them, but a knife
in some circumstances could
The police are saying that
they keep you safe, but the police ain't gonna protect you 24-7,
52-weeks. Obviously you've got to have something to protect you
Several boys mentioned that rather than their parents
protecting them, it was their job to protect their mothers and
younger siblings.[88]
Frances Crook, of the Howard League for Penal Reform,
told us that the research had also found that parents were not
responding in a helpful way to their children's safety concerns.[89]
We return to this point in paragraph 128.
Influence of media coverage
64. We heard concerns that intense media coverage
of fatal stabbings, particularly over the summer of 2008, may
have led to an increase in young people carrying weapons because
it fuelled the perception that everyone else was carrying them.
The crime reduction charity Nacro, for example, argued:
The suggestion that it is in any sense the norm
to carry weapons is likely to increase the number of young people
who do so, simply because they fear attack and wish to have the
means to protect and defend themselves.[90]
Mothers Against Murder and Aggression Wales explained
that when they ask young people "What do you think is the
biggest cause of knife crime and why do you think young people
carry a knife":
More and more the answer is 'the media'. On discussing
this issue the children tell us that they see so much in the news
about knife crime and the way it is portrayed it gives a message
that all teenagers are thugs and are armed. They know this is
not true about the areas of Wales that they live in but it still
frightens them. Almost everyone who has carried a knife or knows
someone who does feels they have to protect themselves because
everyone else is doing the same [91]
Several other organisations, including SmartJustice
and World of Hope, expressed concern about the impact of the media's
negative portrayal of young people:
The attitude of the media, who focus very negatively
on young people also contributes to the problem. Screaming headlines
about a 'war on young thugs' contributes to the concept that for
some young people there is a war being waged against them and
they should be fighting back.[92]
65. However, other witnesses cited positive aspects
of some media coverage. Mrs Oakes-Odger, who has campaigned against
knives since the fatal stabbing of her son Westley Odger, described
how the media had helped to raise the issue of knife crime up
the political agenda, as well as being a conduit for a Home Office
campaign to engage community organisations last summer.[93]
Not all of the media coverage has been sensationalist. The Daily
Mirror, for example, has given practical advice to parents on
how to talk to their children about knives.[94]
Valerie Okoampah and Kane Pierce, pupils at Gladesmore Community
School in Tottenham, London who are part of a student-led anti-knife
campaign called Value Life, explained how Choice FM radio station
had helped spread their message by covering their campaign and
providing DJs for their rallies and marches.[95]
66. The Royal Armouries Museum, in their literature
review of evidence on knife crime, argue that "changing the
culture of newspaper reporting is obviously easier said than done
but responsible reporting could be facilitated by issuing good
quality press briefings about knife-carrying and knife crime that
feature reliable research and statistics." [96]
A 2007 report by the Centre for Criminal Justice Studies gave
the example of a Metropolitan Police statement to publicise the
national knife amnesty which said that "52 teenagers are
victims of knife crime EVERY week in London": members of
the public could reasonably have assumed this referred to actual
stabbings, whereas it includes a range of incidents such as where
a knife has been used to threaten.[97]
The Chair of the UK Statistics Authority, Sir Michael Scholar,
had cause to complain to the Home Office in December 2008 about
the premature release of data related to the Tackling Knives Action
Programme.[98] In the
past we have urged the Government to provide full and accurate
crime information.[99]
67. The vast majority of young people who carry
knives say that they or their peers carry knives to protect themselves:
according to one survey this reason is given by as many as 85%
of knife-carriers. While for some questioned this may be an easy
excuse to justify their actions, young people in deprived communities
undoubtedly feel unsafe. In part this is down to the risk of being
attacked simply for living in a different neighbourhood or "territory".
There is also a strong link between past victimisation and knife-carrying.
Many do not trust their "natural protectors", such as
their parents and the police, to keep them safe. A perception
that everyone else is carrying a knife fuels a vicious circle,
compared by one witness to an "arms race". Solutions
to knife-carrying should therefore focus in part on helping young
people to feel safer.
68. Sensationalist media coverage of stabbings
has contributed to this "arms race". Negative media
portrayals of young people as "feral youths", when the
vast majority are law-abiding, can add to a sense of being under
attack. While we urge media organisations to report knife crime
in a responsible manner, we also recognise the positive role that
the media can play in mobilising communities against knife crime
and acting as a conduit for anti-knife information and campaigns.
Furthermore, responsible reporting is assisted by the provision
of quality information; therefore we repeat our past recommendation
for the provision of full and accurate crime data.
Status
69. Another potential impact of heavy media coverage
of knife offences is that it can serve to glamorise knife crime.
We heard evidence suggesting that some young people carry knives
"out of respect, maybe trying to make a name for themselves
on the street": in order to gain 'respect', they will use
a weapon to threaten and intimidate people."[100]
4% of respondents to the 2008 Youth Survey said they carried a
knife "for street cred" and 5% "to scare others".[101]
Shaun Bailey, who runs the youth charity MyGeneration, told us:
When you are young
you know that carrying
a knife is wrong, you know it is dangerous and you know that stabbing
people is wrong, but it is not as wrong as not looking cool.[102]
Professor Ellis Cashmore, of Staffordshire University,
has argued that knives have assumed a new status as "bling"
for those who cannot afford gold chains and fast cars. As they
cannot display them walking down the street, young people are
posting images of themselves posing with knives on the internet.[103]
70. Peer pressure is also a factor: 4% of young people
who reported carrying a knife told MORI they did so because "my
friends carry one".[104]
Deputy Assistant Commissioner Alf Hitchcock told us:
In some cases we do have young people saying
to us that one of the key reasons they will carry knives is because
in order to be within those peer groups, in order to be within
those gangs, they have to have the kudos of carrying that knife
as part of their membership.[105]
71. Whether through a desire to gain status, or through
fear of repercussions, we also heard evidence that young children
are carrying weapons on behalf of older teenagers and adults.
According to Frances Crook:
We have some recent evidence
that the
older young men involved in perhaps leading groups or leading
gangs and carrying knives are sometimes quite savvy about this,
quite sophisticated, and in order to avoid carrying a knife and
the possibility of a lengthy prison sentence if they are stopped
by the policebecause they do get stopped quite a lotthey
are using very young children to carry for them. We have heard
that they will use a seven or eight year old like a "golf
caddy", this was the expression used, to carry their knives
for them and then if they need it the kid will hand it to them.[106]
This was supported by the experiences of witnesses
living in areas where knife crime is a problem:
I know from experience that people try and offload
weapons on to people younger than them. For example, if I tried
to offload a knife on to someone who was 11 because I had used
that knife. People do try to switch weapons to try and hide them
and people do end up with new weapons and pass them around
They use younger kids as bait really if they
are getting chased by the police or something and they go to a
younger child and say, "Take this knife". There is more
chance of a younger child taking the knife and walking around
thinking it is cool or something.[107]
Under the Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006, individuals
who use another individual to mind a weapon for them can receive
a maximum four year custodial sentence but we heard no evidence
to suggest this has had much of an impact.
72. A smaller number of knife-carriers say they
carry knives to gain 'respect' or street credibility, or because
of peer pressure. Measures to tackle weapon-carrying should therefore
also focus on resolving the reasons why young people seek "respect",
including the appeal of violent street culture, and building confidence
to resist peer pressure.
73. We were also concerned about evidence that
knife offenders are using young children as "caddies"
to carry weapons for them. This is now a criminal offence under
the Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 attracting a maximum sentence
of four years. We would like the Home Office to state the number
of prosecutions made under this legislation and recommend that
such prosecutions are actively pursued by the police.
Availability of weapons
74. One of the major reasons why knives constitute
a high proportion of weapon-related crime is their ease of availability,
compared with guns for example. Almost everyone will have access
to a kitchen knife. In addition, we heard from the Police Federation
and the Youth Justice Board that penknives, domestic knives, specialist
knives (such as hunting knives) and prohibited knives listed in
the Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Offensive Weapons) Order 1988 are
easily obtainable in shops, from catalogues and on the internet.[108]
It is illegal under the Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 to sell
a knife to someone under the age of 18; however young people interviewed
by 11 MILLION said that those who are under 18 but appear older
are rarely challenged if they attempt to buy a knife in a shop.[109]
75. In addition to carrying for protection or to
enhance status, we know from crime statistics and self-report
surveys that many carry knives with intent to use them. In the
2008 MORI Youth Survey, 3% of young people who had carried a knife
had done so in order to threaten others and 3% to injure someone
(and bearing in mind that 8% "didn't want to answer"
and 10% were "not stated" these figures could well be
higher).[110] An anonymous
witness giving evidence with The Prince's Trust explained why
young people may be attracted to illegal combat knives:
The majority of the knives I have been involved
with are combat knives because obviously it does more damage to
the young person or an adult, because if you have a standard kitchen
knife, it just goes in and you pull it out and it does not rip
or tear them on the inside. With a combat knife you have got a
rigid blade on the other side of the blade so it does more damage,
so that way you know for effect the young person or the adult
is not going to get up or retaliate as much. If it is a normal
stab knife, it is in out and it is not doing anything, so you
have to stab them several times to do quite a bit of damage.[111]
76. While there is clearly some value in cracking
down on illegal sales, Dr Marian Fitzgerald cautioned that this
may not solve the problem in the long-term:
Knives may currently be the weapon of choice
for those prepared to engage in these types of violent activity
but this may simply be a function of their relative availability;
and the possibility must also be borne in mind that the same individuals
will simply resort to the use of other weapons if a knife is not
to hand.[112]
This point was supported by Deputy Assistant Commissioner
Hitchcock:
The knife is the weapon of choice in such a large
number of offences because it is easily available and readily
available in every home, but the issue to be addressed is violence
in the round
The issue is how you deal with knife violence
within the range of violent crimes and then the knife within that
context becomes part of a broader violence strategy.[113]
77. A huge factor in the decision to carry a knife
or use it in an offence is its easy availability. This is clearly
particularly true of kitchen knives, but we heard that it is also
possible to purchase illegal knives from a number of sources and
that under-18s are often able to purchase knives in shops, despite
changes in the law. While we believe there is value in exploring
ways of decreasing supply, particularly as a solution for those
who carry knives without intention to use them, this is unlikely
to reduce violent offending significantly. Those intent on committing
violence will find other means. Therefore, in order to address
the growing trend towards serious violence in a minority of young
people, it is important to address its underlying causes.
Causes of violent behaviour
Links to social deprivation
78. We therefore looked at some of the reasons why
young people commit violence. Our evidence located the causes
of knife crime in social exclusion, particularly an unstable family
structure and a lack of self-worth. The crime reduction charity
Nacro argued:
They are likely to come from dysfunctional families,
to have been excluded from school, to be without qualifications
or prospects of decent employment.
They located the problem in:
a shortage of satisfactory youth facilities,
lack of funding, not enough educational activities to help young
people psychologically build their confidence, not enough support
work with parents.[114]
Highway Youth Club concluded:
Without any self-worth their life and any other
person's life for that matter eventually means nothing to them,
and so if they fall into a dispute, they do not care about what
that means for their self or the victim.[115]
79. The National Youth Agency summarised the "critical
risk factors" identified in research from the UK and US which
can combine to heighten the risk of a young person becoming involved
in street violence:
- Detachment from families;
- Absence of or poor/inconsistent parental support;
- Weak bonds with school and other institutions;
- High levels of association with delinquent peers;
- High levels of hopelessness: having negative
expectations about oneself and one's future life;
- Propensity to be impulsive and engage in risk
taking behaviour; and
- Living in neighbourhoods where positive opportunities
are few, where social controls are weak, and where gangs are already
embedded.[116]
CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES
80. There is a strong links between experiencing
or witnessing violence at a young age and committing violence.
Professor Dr Christian Pfeiffer told our colleagues on the Justice
Committee that 8% of those beaten in childhood and 17% of those
who are beaten in childhood and youth go on to commit repeat
violent offences, as opposed to 2.1% of those who are not beaten:
"the creation of violence comes from the family".[117]
81. Some of the knife attacks we have read about
were shocking in terms of the minor nature of the grievance that
prompted them. Young offenders tend to be impulsive and have little
understanding of the impact of their actions on others.[118]
This can be particularly true of children from deprived backgrounds.
The organisation Kids Company draws on scientific evidence to
highlight the impact of chronic neglect on these children:
The most significant influence on the development
of the brain is the quality of early relationships. Such early
experiences can influence whether certain genes are expressed
or not. For example, some individuals carry a gene which is associated
with abnormal behaviour in infancy and poor control of aggression
in adolescence but only if their caregivers are insensitive to
their developing needs. However, if the same infants are looked
after by a sensitive attachment figure they show no early behavioural
problems and are able to control their aggression in their teens
Neglect and lack of love on their own can devastate
more than abuse, as they have a long-term impact on the brain's
development and the individual's ability to manage or modulate
emotion (i.e. to self-regulate)
When the supra-orbital area in the neo-cortex
is under-developed the child cannot empathise
In addition,
neglect and/or early traumatic experiences of abuse lead to a
failure in modulating negative and positive emotions so that the
more aggressive impulsive emotions come to the forefront and are
likely to be expressed.[119]
Brain science can also help to explain why some individuals
who have experienced trauma commit extreme violence at very small
provocation.
82. However, many young people from deprived backgrounds
do not commit violence and conversely we heard examples of young
people from strong family backgrounds who do. Kirk Dawes, of the
West Midlands Mediation and Transformation Service, told us about
one young man who, despite coming from a strong family, being
in full-time education and attending church every Sunday, had
become heavily involved in gangs after being attracted to the
"glamour".[120]
The organisation SmartJustice, which highlighted "an all
pervading, often negative youth culture with an emphasis on status
symbols, glorification of violence and the central role of 'respect'",
cited comments by the barrister Courtney Griffiths who had recently
defended a group of youths, all of whom came from stable homes
and were at university or college but had stabbed another boy
to death in a row caused by perceived disrespect.[121]
Exposure to violent entertainment
media
83. We were concerned about the impact of watching
violent films and video games on young people's propensity to
commit violence, particularly in light of the media furore aroused
by the graphic depiction of knife violence in the most recent
Batman film.[122] We
took evidence from a forensic psychologist, Professor Kevin Browne,
who told us that his review of evidence in the English scientific
literature, published in the Lancet in 2005 confirmed that
there are "well-established short-term effects of children
or teenagers watching violent video films, DVDs or playing violent
computer games and then behaving aggressively in the hours and
weeks afterwards":
The effect size has been measured and the effect
size is equivalent to the effects of using condoms to prevent
HIV or the effect size of putting fluoride in the water to reduce
tooth decay. It is an effect size that has considerable public
health consequences. The scientific lobby is very clear that media
violence has effects on children and adolescents in the short
term.[123]
84. While there has been less research into long-term
effects and the impact on vulnerable groups, Professor Browne
described a Home Office-funded study he undertook in the late
1990s, which found evidence that young offenders reacted differently
from non-offenders to media violence. Crucially, the study found:
a distinct difference between children who grew
up in a violent environment and children who did not. Children
who grew up in a violent environment and who witnessed real violence
in their community or family were very prone to copy and imitate
what they see on the screen, but this is not direct imitation
A child or a teenager that copies something from a movie
will put it within their own behavioural repertoire.[124]
85. Professor Browne told us that he believed there
is a link between watching films and video games and weapons:
We know that children and young people are influenced
by heroes in the film and less so by villains. If you live on
a diet of violent movies that hit first and ask questions afterwards,
which fits in with a violent offender's frame of mind, then you
are likely to copy what that violent hero does
if they
come from a violent family background.[125]
He gave an example of a young offender who copied
scenes from Freddy Kruger by adding razor blades to the fingers
of a gardening glove, which was later found in the back of a car
covered in bloodstains.[126]
86. Professor Browne emphasised that media violence
is not the only or the most powerful influence on individuals
prone to violence, but that it is estimated it contributes around
10% of any person's predisposition to be violent. He argued that
we could reduce violence by 10% by being more responsible in the
way that we portray violence.[127]
87. Individuals born into social deprivation are
more likely to commit violence. Key risk factors for becoming
involved in street violence include coming from a dysfunctional
family with poor parental support, low self-worth, poor school
attendance and living in an area where aspirations are low and
there are few employment opportunities. Young people who have
witnessed or experienced violence as a child are also far more
prone to commit violence. We were shocked by the rapid manner
in which violence can escalate between young people from a seemingly
minor grievance. Extreme parental neglect halts the development
of faculties that enable the majority of people to regulate their
aggression. Solutions should therefore focus on dealing with dysfunctional
and violent families and providing opportunities for young people
to develop self-worth. However, it is important to recognise that
not all young people who come from a deprived background are violent
and that young people from stable backgrounds can also be violent.
88. Evidence to our inquiry supported our view
that violent DVDs and video games exert a negative influence on
those who watch and play them. Watching or playing such media
contributes around 10% of any person's predisposition to be violent.
Of particular concern is their influence on individuals who are
already predisposed to violence because they grew up in a violent
environment.
80 Home Office, Young people and crime: findings
from the 2006 Offending Crime and Justice Survey, July 2008,
p 14; Youth Justice Board, MORI Youth Survey 2008: Young people
in mainstream education, February 2009, p 49; Nicola Marfleet,
Why Carry a Weapon? A Study of Knife Crime Amongst 15-17-Year
Old Males in London (London: Howard League for Penal Reform,
2008), pp 60-1 Back
81
Q 231 Back
82
Q 272 Back
83
Nicola Marfleet, Why Carry a Weapon? A Study of Knife Crime
Amongst 15-17-Year Old Males in London (London: Howard League
for Penal Reform, 2008), pp 77-8 Back
84
Keith Kintrea, Jon Bannister, Jon Pickering, Maggie Reid and Naofumi
Suzuki, Young people and territoriality in British cities (York:
Joseph Rowntree Foundation), October 2008 Back
85
Qq 273, 370 Back
86
Youth Justice Board, MORI Youth Survey 2008: Young people in
mainstream education, February 2009, p 50 Back
87
Annex D [Bristol seminar notes] Back
88
Nicola Marfleet, Why Carry a Weapon? A Study of Knife Crime
Amongst 15-17-Year Old Males in London (London: Howard League
for Penal Reform, 2008), pp 61, 67 Back
89
Q 295 Back
90
Ev 104 Back
91
Ev 184 Back
92
Ev 103 [World of Hope]; Ev 106 [SmartJustice] Back
93
Q 225 Back
94
For an example, see "How parents can win the war against
knife crime", The Daily Mirror, 12 June 2008, p 39 Back
95
Q 471 Back
96
Royal Armouries Museum, Tackling Knife Crime: A Review of Literature
on Knife Crime in the UK, December 2007, para 5.12 Back
97
Chris Eades, Roger Grimshaw, Arianna Silvestri, Enver Solomon,
Knife crime: a review of evidence and policy, 2nd
edition (London: Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, 2007),
p 9 Back
98
Letter from Sir Michael Scholar to Jeremy Heywood, 12 December
2008, published at www.statisticsauthority.gov.uk Back
99
Home Affairs Committee, Seventh Report of Session 2007-08, Policing
in the 21st Century, HC 364, para 46 Back
100
Q 345 Back
101
Youth Justice Board, MORI Youth Survey 2008: Young people in
mainstream education, February 2009, p 49 Back
102
Q 314 Back
103
"Deadly street culture: Lethal Posers of Britain's Bebo generation",
The Independent, 13 July 2008, p 22 Back
104
Youth Justice Board, MORI Youth Survey 2008: Young people in
mainstream education, February 2009, p 49 Back
105
Q 119 Back
106
Q 296 Back
107
Qq 340-1 Back
108
Ev 121 [Youth Justice Board]; Ev 111 [Police Federation] Back
109
Ev 147 Back
110
Youth Justice Board, MORI Youth Survey 2008: Young people in
mainstream education, February 2009, p 49 Back
111
Q 278 Back
112
Ev 161 Back
113
Q 118 Back
114
Ev 104-5 Back
115
Ev 124 Back
116
Ev 159 Back
117
Uncorrected transcript of evidence to the Justice Committee to
be published as HC 54-iii, Q 612 [Christian Pfeiffer] Back
118
Ev 104 [Nacro] Back
119
Kids Company, The Kids Company Brainwave: Learning from Vulnerable
Children How to Care Better, p 10 Back
120
Q 409 Back
121
Ev 105-6 Back
122
"Councils should consider making Dark Knife a 15, say Tories",
The Guardian, 6 August 2008, www.guardian.co.uk Back
123
Q 478 Back
124
Q 479 Back
125
Ibid Back
126
Q 487 Back
127
Q 488 Back
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