SHORT BULLETED
SUMMARY OF
SUBMISSION
Memorandum submitted by the Department for Environment
Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) (AQ 24)
This evidence has been provided in consultation
with Department for Transport (DfT), Department of Health (DoH)
and the Health Protection Agency (HPA).
— Air quality in the UK has improved
significantly over recent decades, but improvements are now levelling
off for key pollutants and are increasingly costly to achieve.
— Notwithstanding these improvements, air
quality remains a significant health issue, particularly in urban
areas, and reduces the life expectancy of the UK population by
an average of seven to eight months, with social costs estimated
at £9-21 billion per year. This excludes additional health
costs that cannot currently be quantified. Air pollution also
affects ecosystems and can lead to loss of biodiversity.
— In common with many other Member
States, the UK is not yet meeting in full European obligations
or UK Air Quality objectives for particulate matter (PM10) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
— Road transport and large combustion
plant (power stations, refineries) are the key UK-based sources
of overall pollution emissions but urban exposure are dominated
by transport emissions. London generally has the highest levels
of air pollution, but levels exceed European Limit Values for
NO2, in particular along main roads in other major urban areas
as well.
— EU legislation; the Air Quality Strategy
for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and Local Air
Quality Management provide the framework for delivery of improvements
in air quality. The UK has submitted an application for additional
time to meet EU limit value deadlines for PM10 and work is in
hand on measures to help the UK meet EU obligations on NO2 by
2015.
— The National Air Quality strategy
provides the framework for regular review of air quality in the
UK including health impacts and possible action for continued
improvements in air quality. Looking to the future, links with
climate change will be increasingly important to ensure that any
measures taken will maximise the benefits to both areas.
OVERVIEW
1. Air quality has improved in the UK over
recent decades. Levels of most pollutants are declining significantly,
driven primarily by domestic and international legislation; legal
limits are met across 99% of the country. The Environment Act
1995 requires the Government to set out a strategy for improving
air quality in the UK. The first Air Quality Strategy for England,
Scotland and Wales (later versions included Northern Ireland)
was published in 2000 and was most recently revised in 2007. This
set objectives for a number of different pollutants that have
impacts on human health and or ecosystems. The key pollutants
in the strategy are sulphur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter
(PM10 and PM2.5), ozone (O3) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), benzene, 1,3 butadiene, carbon monoxide (CO) lead, ammonia,
and oxides of nitrogen (NOX) including nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Many of these objectives are now reflected in EU legislation.
2. The UK is not meeting air quality strategy
objectives for NO2 and PM10. Breaches of EU obligations for other
pollutants such as SO2, PAHs or benzene are uncommon and usually
associated with activities in a particular location. Excessive
deposition of nitrogen as a result of ammonia and NOX emissions
remains a threat to ecosystems.
3. Levels of particulate matter (from road
transport, stationary fuel combustion, tyre and brake wear and
construction and quarrying) remain above legal limits in a very
small number of (mainly urban) areas in London. However health
evidence suggests that there is no "safe" level for
fine particulate matter, and so health benefits (in terms of reduced
mortality and morbidity) can be achieved through reductions in
population exposure below current legal limits. Concentrations
of NO2 remain above the EU limit value (and UK objectives) at
about a third of major roadside sites in urban areas. The recent
decline in concentrations of NO2 is now levelling off and further
research is needed to understand why this is the case. Where improvements
are most needed (notably urban areas near busy roads) these are
increasingly challenging and expensive to achieve.
4. Peak ozone episodes (summer smogs) have
decreased due to pollution control in the UK and Europe, but background
ground-level ozone levels are rising. In addition to causing health
effects, ozone damages both crops and natural ecosystems, and
is a powerful greenhouse gas.
HEALTH AND
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
OF POOR
AIR QUALITY
5. Defra works with the Health Protection
Agency, Department of Health and other Government Departments
to maintain and develop methodologies for assessing air quality
impacts on health and the environment.
6. The quantified health impacts of air
pollution in the UK are valued in accordance with Treasury guidelines
and follow the approach set out by the Interdepartmental Group
on Costs and Benefits (IGCB) in Volume 3 of the Air Quality Strategy
(2007). A monetary cost benefit analysis (CBA) forms a major part
of the overall assessment of measures to improve air quality including
those set out in the Air Quality Strategy 2007. The monetary assessment
of benefits is based on an impact-pathway approach that follows
a logical progression from emissions through dispersion, concentration
and exposure to quantification of impacts and their valuation.
The benefits are then compared on a consistent basis with the
estimated costs associated with the implementation of each policy
measure under consideration.
OVERVIEW OF
HEALTH IMPACTS
FROM AIR
POLLUTION
7. Advice to Government on the health impacts
of air pollutants is provided by the Committee on Medical Effects
of Air Pollutants (COMEAP). Several members of COMEAP have contributed
to the development of the air quality guidelines published by
the World Health Organization (WHO) over the years (WHO, 1987;
2000; 2005). The WHO air quality guidelines form the basis for
the European limit values set out in the UK's Air Quality Strategy.
8. Extensive research considered by COMEAP
has shown that both short-term and long-term exposure to air pollution
can have effects on health. Of the nine air pollutants covered
in the UK's Air Quality Strategy (2007) the effects of particulate
pollution have dominated the overall impact of air pollution on
health. The available evidence shows that day to day variations
in concentrations of airborne particles are associated with day
to day variations in a range of health effects. These include
deaths, admissions to hospital for the treatment of both respiratory
and cardiovascular diseases and asthmatic symptoms. In addition
to these effects there is evidence that long-term exposure to
particulate air pollution is associated with a decrease in life
expectancy. These associations are believed to be causal.
9. The available health evidence suggests
that there is no "safe" level for fine particulate matter
(measured as PM2.5). Therefore there are further benefits to health
that can be achieved through reductions in population exposure
below current legal limits. The Air Quality Strategy 2007 sets
out an "exposure reduction" approach for PM2.5. This
seeks further reductions in the health effects of air pollution
by providing a driver to improve air quality everywhere in the
UK rather than just in a small number of localised hotspot areas,
where the costs of reducing concentrations are likely to be exceedingly
high. This approach will act to make policy measures more cost-effective
and is more likely to maximise public health improvements across
the general population. This approach was adopted for PM2.5 by
the EU in Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality.
10. Air pollution is currently estimated
to reduce life expectancy by an average of seven to eight months
across the UK population with estimated equivalent costs of between
£9 billion and £20 billion. However there are important
uncertainties associated with the quantification and valuation
of health impacts. These uncertainties are set out in full in
Volume 3 of the Air Quality Strategy 2007.
11. Significantly of all the common air
pollutants covered in the Strategy (2007), the evidence on the
health effects associated with both short-term and long-term exposure
to NO2 has been inconsistent. Whilst the health effects of particulate
pollution are well understood, those resulting from NO2 are less
clear. The available evidence suggests that the reported effects
of NO2 might be due to exposure to particulate pollution owing
to the close correlations between their concentrations and similarity
of sources.
12. Previous attempts by COMEAP to quantify
the possible effects of exposure to NO2 have not been successful
as COMEAP did not regard the available evidence sufficient enough
for quantification (DH, 1998); and the available studies have
also had difficulties in disentangling the effects of NO2 from
those of particles and other pollutants/factors (COMEAP, 2009).
As a result, Defra (and DH) has been unable to assess the direct
health benefits for measures to control NO2 and no direct health
benefits have been included in the main cost-benefit analyses
for measures assessed in the Air Quality Strategy (2007). Only
a sensitivity analysis is presented for the effects of NO2 on
respiratory hospital admissions. The 1998 report by COMEAP suggested
a concentration-response function that could be used in sensitivity
analyses to illustrate the possible size of the effect of short-term
exposure to NO2 on respiratory hospital admissions. It should
be noted that NO2 can be converted to nitrate which is a component
of particle aerosols; the indirect effect of NO2 via nitrates
(secondary particle) on mortality, as part of this fine particle
mixture (measured as PM2.5), is currently quantified.
13. COMEAP acknowledge that further work
is required in order to understand the health effects associated
with exposure to NO2 and is currently in discussion with the Health
Protection Agency in developing a programme of work in this area.
14. There is currently an underestimation
of the full range of possible health benefits that could be attained
from policy measures to improve air quality, because it has not
been possible to quantify all health outcomes. Work to review
the evidence is ongoing and it is expected that this would lead
to an increase in the number of health outcomes identified. Inclusion
of other health effects in the central analysis would increase
the monetised health benefits that could result from measures
targeted at reducing concentrations of air pollutants in the UK.
15. There is some evidence from limited
UK studies to suggest that air pollution exposure is higher amongst
some communities who rate poorly on social deprivation indices
(Defra, 2007). Although this work was limited in scope (it covered
only five urban areas in the UK), it illustrates possible health
inequalities.
OVERVIEW OF
THE IMPACT
OF AIR
POLLUTION ON
ECOSYSTEMS
16. There is a large body of literature
demonstrating that air pollutants can affect aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems. Concern began in the 1970s with the identification
of problems caused by acid rain and continues today with the issues
of eutrophication and ground-level ozone.
17. An indication of the potential for effects
of pollutants on the environment to occur is provided via the
critical load concept. A critical load is an estimate of the exposure
to one or more air pollutants, above which there is risk of damage
to certain sensitive elements of the environment. If the amount
of deposition is greater than the critical load for that habitat,
an exceedance is reported. Exceeding critical loads does not necessarily
indicate that damage has occurred, but it indicates the potential
for damage to occur.
Acidification
18. Acidification of soils and waters can
be caused by deposition of sulphur, nitrogen (from emissions of
NOX and ammonia) or hydrochloric acid (or a combination of these
pollutants). Emission controls have reduced sulphur dioxide emissions
by over 90% from their peak value in the 1950s, resulting in reduced
concentrations of sulphur and levels of acidity in the atmosphere,
soils and freshwater.
19. There has been a reduction in the area
of terrestrial broad habitats exceeding critical Loads for acidity
from 71% of ecosystem area using 1996-98 acid deposition, to 58%
using deposition data for 2004-06; this is predicted to reduce
to 40% in 2020. Current critical load exceedences for acidity
are mainly due to the deposition of nitrogen rather than sulphur.
Typically, most of the deposited nitrogen is accumulating in soils
and vegetation, and relatively little is currently contributing
directly to acidification, but significant leaching to surface
waters is occurring in higher deposition areas, and in particularly
in catchments with sparse soils.
20. Since the problem was identified in
the 1970s, UK and International policy action has achieved considerable
success in managing acid deposition. Acid deposition has been
greatly reduced and the acidity of soils and acidified surface
waters has declined. Ecological recovery of these habitats is
underway but soils and freshwaters in some regions remain acidified
and the legacy of previous emissions, land use and climate change
may limit the extent of the recovery. Further reductions in the
emissions of sulphur may be required to aid ecological improvement.
Eutrophication
21. Eutrophication from atmospheric deposition
in the UK is caused by the emissions of nitrogen oxides and ammonia.
Emissions of nitrogen oxides have decreased by 50% since 1970,
with a corresponding 50% reduction in air concentrations of nitrogen
oxides. Emissions of ammonia are only reliable from 1990 onwards,
since when they have decreased by 24%, although there is large
annual variability, masking any overall trend. Concentrations
of ammonia have changed little over the last decade.
22. Despite the large reduction in emissions,
total deposition of nitrogen has changed little. This is due to
changes in the chemistry and removal of nitrogen compounds accelerating
the removal from the atmosphere over 20 years of monitoring. Thus
a larger proportion of nitrogen emissions are deposited in the
UK than occurred 20 years ago. At sites in the UK where nitrogen
deposition exceeds the capacity of the vegetation and soil to
sequester inputs, nitrate is leaching into surface waters and
has the potential to stimulate algal growth and affect species
composition. In the terrestrial environment, changes in species
composition have been observed close to sources of ammonia, and
in the national surveys (such as the Countryside Survey which
while showing significant impacts up to 2000, suggest no worsening
of conditions thereafter). Controlled experiments also show reductions
in species composition with nitrogen addition, especially for
ammonia treatments. Currently, 60% of all sensitive habitat areas
sensitive to eutrophication from nitrogen deposition exceed the
critical load for nutrient nitrogen. This figure is predicted
to decrease to 49% by 2020.
23. Eutrophication problems are being addressed,
and while there has been a reduction in emissions and concentrations
of nitrogen oxides, it is recognised that further policy action
is required to reduce nitrogen emissions, and especially ammonia
to prevent further damage and allow recovery of some plant communities
to begin.
Ground-level ozone
24. Biological indicators of ground-level
ozone show that concentrations continue to exceed thresholds for
effects on sensitive species. Current ozone exposures exceed critical
thresholds for effects on crops, forests and semi-natural vegetation
over substantial areas of the UK. Background concentrations of
ozone in the northern hemisphere have now increased to a level
where exposure to ozone may cause adverse effects on vegetation.
These effects are most likely to occur in crops grown in the southern
areas of the UK during spring and summer. It has been estimated
that ozone reduces the yield of wheat grown in southern Britain
by 5% to 15%, equivalent to a reduction in national yield in 2000
of approximately two million tonnes. Ground-level ozone also contributes
to global warming indirectly by reducing carbon take up by vegitation
as well as being a greenhouse gas in its own right.
25. Policy action to reduce European emissions
of the precursor gases which form ozone have successfully reduced
peak ozone concentrations in the UK. However, emissions throughout
the Northern Hemisphere are causing increasing background levels;
control of emissions of ozone precursors at the hemispheric scale
is therefore required.
Assessment of air quality
26. UK monitoring of air quality is undertaken
for a number of reasons but the pollutants monitored, the methods
used and the location and number of monitoring sites mainly follow
requirements of EU legislation. "Directive compliance"
monitoring makes up the vast majority of the revenue spend on
monitoring activities, and takes up over 50% of the total evidence
and research budget for air quality in Defra. Monitoring is also
undertaken for other reasons, such as the maintenance of long
term and policy relevant datasets (eg the black smoke network
where some data go back to the 1920s). By applying the principle
of "measure once, use many times" all data from our
monitoring networks support a range of activities even though
the design of the networks is, by and large, prescribed in legislation.
27. All air quality monitoring data, current
and historic, gathered by Defra is made publicly available through
the national air quality archive—www.airquality.co.uk—which
is updated hourly from our automatic systems. All of our monitoring
activities are outsourced through fully competitive tendering
processes to ensure high value for money.
28. Local authorities also undertake air
quality monitoring for their own purposes and to inform the process
of local air quality management. The location of monitors, the
methods used and the quality control systems used may not be of
the standard required by the European Directives and so these
data are not generally reported to the Commission. However, where
the requirement of the Directive coincide with local authority
monitoring, these sites can be "affiliated" into the
national network: the local authority retains ownership of the
site and the equipment and Defra takes on the maintenance and
quality control. In this way we are able to obtain data in a more
cost effective manner; some 53% of the Automatic Urban and Rural
Network (AURN) is made up of affiliated sites. The extent to which
local data can be used in the centre to assist in delivery of
air quality improvements is under review and consideration is
being given to the best use of this data at the centre.
29. The Ambient Air Quality Directive also
offers Member States the option of reducing the prescribed number
of monitoring stations if supplementary assessment methods, are
also reported. The UK makes full use of this option as the national
model provides far greater spatial coverage than monitoring alone
as well as saving around £2.5 million annually. The model
is tested against monitoring data and comes well within the required
data quality objectives laid down in the Directive.
30. Monitoring data are critical to future
policy development, as is predictive modelling, but they are both
complex and have many inherent uncertainties. For example, there
is evidence from the monitoring network to suggest that roadside
concentrations of air pollution are not falling in line with emissions
projections (this is being seen in other Member States as well).
Defra is conducting research to understand the causes of this
and to improve reliability of modelling. Research is conducted
to improve our evidence base on air quality and to inform how
best to secure future improvements.
Policies to improve air quality and meet EU obligations
31. The new ambient air quality directive
(2008/50/EC) must be transposed into national legislation by June
2010 and the UK is on track to achieve this. This Directive consolidates
and simplifies most of the existing EU legislation on ambient
air quality, setting legally binding limits for key pollutants
to protect public health and ecosystems; and introduces a new
control framework for fine particulate matter based on exposure
reduction. It also provides for additional time to meet the limit
values for PM10 and NO2, subject to Commission approval of detailed
plans setting out how this would be achieved. This is in recognition
of the difficulties nearly all Member States have had in meeting
the original deadlines.
32. Since 2005 the UK has reported exceedences
of the PM10 limit value in eight UK zones (including London) and
in April 2009 the UK submitted an application to seek exemption
from the obligation to comply with this until 2011 as provided
under article 22 of Directive 2008/50/EC. National projections
based on a 2005 baseline year suggested that on the basis of current
measures compliance would be achieved across all zones by 2011.
This reflects the fact that air quality in the UK is generally
good and PM10 limits have been met across 99% of the UK. Since
this submission, the national 2008 assessment reported compliance
in all zones except London and updated national projections show
that we should achieve compliance with the limit value across
the whole UK by 2010.
33. The Commission published its decision
on the notification on 11 December, as it has also done for several
other Member States. Whilst this was disappointing in relation
to London, Government is confident that it can respond to the
questions raised by the Commission and will resubmit its application
with further information as necessary, working closely with the
GLA. The Mayor of London published his draft air quality strategy
in October 2009; and this increases our confidence in our ability
to meet particulate matter limits across London by 2011.
34. Meeting EU limits for NO2 in the remaining
areas of exceedences presents, a much more significant challenge,
requiring additional action in particular to limit emissions from
the transport sector in urban areas. The limits for NO2 come into
force in January 2010 and the UK faces infraction if they are
not met or we are unable to demonstrate how they will be met by
2015. This is a risk shared with nearly all other major Member
States. Latest estimates for this pollutant suggest that on the
basis of current measures alone the UK would not meet EU limit
values for this pollutant by either 2010 or 2015. For example
Defra projections suggest that without additional measures some
500km of roads mainly in London but also in other major urban
areas in the UK, would breach the NO2 annual mean limit value
in 2015). Defra is working with DfT and other stakeholders to
identify measures to reduce NO2 pollution and prepare an application
for time extension to meet the EU limit value for this pollutant
by 2015.
35. The most significant levels of exceedence
for NO2 are in London and the London Mayor's draft air quality
strategy provides some useful measures but their impacts need
to be fully quantified and understood and this is not possible
without further analysis from the GLA. Separately from this, work
is in progress to deliver the Government commitment made in January
2009 that a regulatory mechanism would be put in place to ensure
air quality limits are met around an expanded Heathrow airport.
No additional capacity would be released until the limits are
met.
Vehicle Emission Standards
36. Emissions standards (called EURO standards)
for new vehicles and the regulation of fuel quality to reduce
air pollution from vehicle emissions are a particularly important
means of improving ambient air quality. These have led to significant
reductions in particulates especially since the early 2000s. Further
reductions should be achieved thanks to later Euro Standards (Euro
5 and especially Euro 6) which impact in particular on emissions
of NOX including NO2 but these will not have a significant impact
until 2015 and beyond when Euro 6 becomes mandatory. Therefore
other measures are needed in the short term to reduce pollution
and to meet EU obligations. Measures under consideration by Government
include exploring the feasibility of low emission zones outside
London, retrofitment of pollution abatement technology to the
most polluting vehicles (HGV and buses especially); incentivising
the early introduction of euro standards, in particular Euro 6
when this becomes available. Other measures under review include
measures to reduce road traffic through modal shift for example
and to encourage the purchase of low and very low emission vehicles.
37. Many of these measures have significant
cost implications which need to be carefully considered against
the benefits. The 2007 UK Air Quality Strategy reviewed a number
of possible measures and concluded that the most cost beneficial
measures were to incentivise Euro standards; to promote low emission
vehicles and to reduce emissions from shipping. Action on shipping
will be implemented through international maritime legislation;
implementation of the other measures is still under consideration
as part of the work to apply for further time to meet the NO2
EU limit value.
LOCAL AIR
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
IN ENGLAND
38. The Environment Act 1995 sets out requirements
for local authorities to monitor and assess local air quality
and to work towards the attainment of air quality strategy objectives
where these are not met or at risk. The UK Government and the
devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland
are responsible for policy and legislative issues affecting air
quality. Defra oversee local air quality management in England.
Local Authorities have monitored air quality at district and borough
level since the beginning of 2000 and have identified many locations
where UK objectives have not been met. These are mainly in large
urban areas such as London and major conurbations in the West
Midlands the North West and Yorkshire but also in many smaller
urban areas and market towns where narrow streets have restricted
the dispersion of pollutants. In 2009 over 240 Authorities in
the UK had declared an Air Quality Management Area for one or
more of the UK objectives. For each of these areas the local authority
concerned must prepare and implement an action plan to improve
local air quality.
39. Guidance on preparing Action Plans and
on measures to improve air quality is provided by Defra and the
devolved administrations. Delivery of local air quality improvements
is often reliant on district and county authorities and neighbouring
authorities working together to identify the main sources of pollution
and introducing complementary measures to improve air quality.
Transport sources are commonly the most significant source of
pollution locally. In 2009, the Department for Transport issued
the latest round of Local Transport Planning Guidance, which strongly
encourages local authorities to integrate their air quality action
plan with their local transport plan. Similar approaches are recommended
for minimising the negative impacts of land use development on
air quality and climate change measures. Local air quality management
arrangements are currently being reviewed to ensure they remain
fit for purpose and capable of delivering local improvements to
support the national objectives.
National Emissions Ceilings
40. Health and ecosystem impacts are also
caused by air pollutants transported in large quantities across
national boundaries. The EU national emissions ceilings directive
(NECD) and protocols under the UNECE Convention on Long-Range
Trans-boundary Air Pollution aim to address this by setting national
emission ceilings for key air pollutants. The UK is currently
on course to meet its NECD 2010 emission ceilings for SO2, VOCs
and NH3. However, like many other European countries, the UK is
currently projected to exceed its 2010 NOX ceiling by a small
percentage with compliance expected by 2012. The situation is
being closely monitored with a view to meeting the ceiling as
soon as possible. The Gothenburg protocol, which like the NECD
sets ceilings for key pollutants but also sets limit values for
key emission sources, is currently being reviewed with a view
to setting new ceilings to be achieved by 2020. The European Commission
is also expected to publish some time in 2010 a proposal for revision
of the NECD so as to set new, tighter ceilings for 2020.
Industrial emissions
41. UK legislative controls on emissions
to air from industrial installations have been vital to improving
air quality locally, nationally and internationally. In recent
years, the larger industrial installations (now some 4,500 in
the UK) have been subject to integrated pollution prevention and
control (IPPC) under the eponymous European Directive[1]
which requires emission limit values (ELVs) to be set for all
likely significant emissions to any of the three environmental
media. The regulator has to set ELVs on the basis of the use of
best available techniques (BAT) which in turn are determined and
regularly reviewed on the basis of technical and economic viability
in the industry sector concerned. The BAT approach is also used
in the regulation[2]
under national legislation of air emissions from some 20,000 smaller
industrial installations.
42. Other EU legislation dealing with waste
incineration, large combustion plants and activities using solvents
are met in the UK through the IPPC framework. EU legislation on
petrol vapour recovery, paints formulation and the sulphur content
of liquid fuels also provide controls upon industry (including
the transport industry) relevant to air quality.
Future drivers
43. Growing population and increasing travel
in some urban areas, linked with continuing pressures on development,
make it difficult to reduce overall air pollution levels in the
short term, particularly in major urban areas and along key infrastructure
routes. On the basis of current impact assessment methodologies,
the costs of measures specifically aimed at bringing forward expected
air quality improvements can outweigh the health benefits.
44. Projected increases in summer heatwaves,
such as that in 2003, as a result of climate change are expected
to increase the frequency and severity of "summer smogs"'.
In the UK, it was estimated that there were between 225 and 593
additional deaths brought forward due to increased ozone in the
first two weeks of August 2003, compared to the same period in
2002. Similarly, for PM10 concentrations, it was estimated that
there were 207 additional deaths. For England and Wales, the deaths
due to air pollution accounted for 21-38% of the total reported
excess deaths during the 2003 heatwave. Other potential climatic
changes (higher rainfall, stronger and more prevalent south westerly
winds in winter) may benefit local UK air quality. Any increase
in burning of coal in the UK in existing combustion plants in
the UK will impact negatively on air pollution despite existing
and planned abatement measures. The Department for Energy and
Climate Change announced in November 2009 that new coal-fired
plants would need to incorporate carbon capture and storage which
would bring air quality benefits in addition to meeting the primary
aim of reducing CO2 emissions.
45. Globally, greater use of fossil fuels
resulting from increased population and energy demand will impact
on transboundary air pollution affecting the UK so continued efforts
in international fora to drive down national emissions will be
needed.
46. Given the many common emission sources,
links with the climate change mitigation agenda will be increasingly
important in maintaining and improving air quality so that local
as well as global benefits are accrued. Influencing future UNECE
and European Commission proposals as well as ensuring good co-ordination
within Government including at regional and local level will be
critical. In the short to medium term (to 2020-30) one challenge
will be to manage the risks of deterioration from increased biomass
burning (which can lead to local increases in levels of particulates)
as well as optimising synergies from energy efficiency measures,
low carbon vehicles and increased use of non combustion renewable
energy. Looking further, right out to 2050, the scale of carbon
reductions that the UK has committed to means there should be
significant co-benefits achievable for both air quality and climate
change. The recent Pre Budget Report announcements on promoting
low carbon transport will provide helpful incentives to support
the growth in electric vehicles which will bring benefits for
air quality on top of those for climate change mitigation.
15 December 2009
1 Now 2008/1/EC. A proposed "recast" of this
and related legislation was politically agreed in the Environment
Council in June 2009 and stands to be finalised in mid 2010 after
further consideration by the European Parliament. Back
2
By local authorities in England and Wales and by the Scottish
Environment Protection Agency and the Northern Ireland Environment
Agency in their respective areas. Back
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