Written evidence from the Foreign and
Commonwealth Office
I. INTRODUCTION
1. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office has
prepared this memorandum for the House of Commons Foreign Affairs
Select Committee inquiry into relations between the United Kingdom
and the United States, and the implications of US foreign policy
for United Kingdom interests. We welcome this opportunity to demonstrate
the work the UK is doing with the US, which involves many government
departments and agencies. UKTI is submitting a separate memorandum
on trade promotion and investment issues. The Committee will be
receiving other evidence, written and oral, both before and after
their visit to the USA. This memorandum relates primarily to the
FCO's areas of responsibility.
The Basis of the Bilateral Relationship
2. As the Foreign Secretary has previously stated,
the United States remains our most important bilateral ally, and
has the greatest capacity to do good of any country in the world
today. The relationship between the two countries is broadly based
and deeply rooted. The key elements are:
History. The US and the UK are
linked by historynot only through the colonial period and
the legacy of the Common Law, but through our alliance in two
world wars and throughout the Cold War.
Values. We share values like democracy,
the rule of law and free markets, and seek to promote them outside
our borders.
Culture. The English language
remains a great unifying force; and the popular culture of films,
music, television and the written word build bridges between the
peoples of the two countries.
Personal ties. An estimated 678,000
British citizens live in the US; around 130,000 US citizens live
in the UK. Last year almost 3 million Americans visited the UK
and over 4.5 million Britons visited the USwhether as tourists,
to study or to do business. Over 47,000 US citizens enrolled in
courses of study in the UK in 2008.
Business links. The US remains
the largest investor in the UK (and the UK is the US's number
one investment destination in Europe), with US investment, totalling
$399 billion at the end of 2007, supporting over 1 million jobs;
the UK is the largest investor in the US (total investment stock
of $411 billion at the end of 2007), supporting almost 1 million
jobs. The US is the UK's top export destination.
Security, Defence and Intelligence.
The UK's national security depends on our uniquely close partnership
with the US, in NATO and bilaterally. At its heart, the relationship
relies on sharing the burdens of nuclear deterrence, the benefits
of intelligence and technology, and the risks of military operations.
As a result, we have maintained an exceptional level of trust
and understanding.
Science links. The US and the
UK are each other's most important partners in science collaboration.
30% of the UK's international collaborations are with the USmore
than double any other countryand 13% of the US's are with
the UK.
Shared interests. All our history
and culture and the mutual benefits of our economic and security
ties would not add up to the relationship we have unless we also
had shared interestsin a peaceful, prosperous and just
international order.
The Nature and Value of the Bilateral Relationship,
and its contribution to Global Security
3. It is obvious that the world of 2009
is very different from the world of 1941, when Churchill and Roosevelt
set out their shared hopes for the future, post-war world in the
Atlantic Charter. But it is also very different from the world
of 2001, when the Committee last reported on British-US relations
(http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmselect/cmfaff/327/32702.htm).
In particular, in recent years countries like China, India and
Brazil have seen dramatic rates of economic growth, and have begun
to play a greater role in global governance. The traditional powers
of North America and Europe, including the US and UK, are no longer
the exclusive poles of global power that they might have been
in the past. Each of us has had to adapt our foreign and economic
policies to the new reality.
4. But the United States is still the only superpower,
economically, diplomatically and militarily. Its GDP, which makes
up more than 23% of world GDP (according to World Bank figures
for 2008) is larger than that of any other countryalmost
three times larger than that of the second largest economy, Japan.
Even if current growth trends are sustained, China's GDP is unlikely
to overtake that of the US for more than a decade. The US's combination
of high spending on science and research, ready access to venture
capital and its entrepreneurial business culture has given it,
since the Second World War, a technological lead over other countries.
It has unrivalled military power and political influence across
the globe. It is a key member of the global system of multilateral
institutions.
5. Against that background, it is clear
that the UK's ability to achieve its own international objectives
will be immeasurably greater if we share those objectives with
the US. Thus the maintenance of a strong transatlantic relationship
has been one of the cornerstones of British foreign policy since
the Second World War. Our partnership, both bilaterally and in
international organisations, has made an immense contribution
to global securitythroughout the Cold War, through our
membership in NATO; and since, through our participation in international
peacekeeping, stabilisation and enforcement operations in the
Balkans, the Middle East, Afghanistan and elsewhere.
The Alignment of UK and US Interests
6. Powerful as it is, the US still needs
effective international partners which share its aims and are
ready to share the task of achieving them. The UK is still regarded
as one of the most reliable US partners. As President Obama said
on 1 April during his visit to London "The United States
and the United Kingdom have stood together through thick and thin,
through war and peace, through hard times and prosperity. We have
always emerged stronger by standing together".
7. All countries have national interests
which are particular to them and not shared with others. The UK
and US are no exception. But to a very great extent we also have
shared interestsin combating violent extremism around the
world, and addressing the poverty, ignorance and conflict which
underlies it; in promoting good governance; in supporting development
and economic growth to the benefit of the world's poorest countries.
Britain's willingness to support the US after the terrorist attacks
of 11 September 2001, and subsequently to send troops to fight
alongside US forces in Iraq and Afghanistan built on the common
values and the instinct of both countries to look to the other
in times of difficulty. But it also reflected the common interest
we had in fighting the scourge of terrorism.
The Special Relationship and UK influence
8. As the Prime Minister has said, no international
partnership in recent history has served the world better than
the special relationship between Britain and the United States.
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton commented after meeting the
Foreign Secretary on 29 July "Our special relationship is
a driver for greater peace, progress and prosperity, not only
for our own people, but around the world".
9. We are confident that the special relationship
will endure, because it is not just a relationship of sentiment
but a "partnership of purpose", as the Prime Minister
told the Joint Session of the US Congress on 4 March this year,
based on our evaluation of our current interests, not just the
depth of our shared culture and history. As President Obama said
on 3 March: "The relationship is not only special and strong
but will only get stronger as time goes on".
10. We have a uniquely close relationship
with the US also in the scope of our co-operationboth in
terms of the areas of the world where we work together, and the
issues on which we co-ordinate. Relations with the Administration
of President Obama have built on the tradition of wide-ranging
co-operation. The new Administration spent its first months in
office reviewing US policies inherited from President Bush. The
Embassy in Washington and other British officials were able to
contribute to many of those reviews and especially those in areas
of most importance to us such as Afghanistan/Pakistan, nuclear
disarmament and the Middle East. The Prime Minister and President
Obama and their respective officials worked together to prepare
the G20 summit in London in April, showing that this reflex operates
in the international economic field as well as in foreign and
security policy. Britain has similarly established very strong
working links on climate change with the new US Administration
and, through our network of posts in the US, with regional leaders
as well.
11. This does not mean, however, that the
UK and the US always agree, or that British governments defer
to the US when we occasionally disagree. The UK-US dialogue is
based on mutual respect and candour which is rare between international
partners, however close. The strength of the relationship lies
in part in our ability to maintain a frank and open relationship
with the United States even when we disagree. The UK's ability
to express a different view to that of the US, coming as it does
from a close friend without a hidden agenda, is something which
senior US officials tell us they find valuable. But our influence
is achieved not through megaphone diplomacy but through persuasive
and evidence-based arguments, which in turn depends on our shared
economic and financial interests and on the effectiveness of our
diplomatic networks, Armed Forces and intelligence and security
agencies.
12. The later paragraphs of this memorandum
will set out in more detail all the elements which link together
to create and maintain this relationship, which include our shared
interests in international security (including our defence and
intelligence co-operation); in global issues such as the world
economic crisis and climate security; and in tackling regional
conflicts whether in the Middle East, Afghanistan or elsewhere.
The Implications of Changes in the Nature of the
Relationship
13. We do not foresee any fundamental changes
in the nature of the UK's bilateral relationship with the US,
given that it is based on enduring common interests. But it will
evolve, not least in the light of the development of other bilateral
and multilateral relationships. In recent decades, successive
British governments have sought to promote the security and prosperity
of the UK and advance its global interests by establishing Britain
as a leading partner in the European Union while maintaining a
strong link to the United States.
14. The British Government does not believe
it has to choose between strengthening its ties with other European
countries through its EU membership and maintaining a close relationship
with the US. Indeed, in the modern, globalised world, where the
emphasis is on finding multilateral solutions to global problems,
the Government wants to see the EU and the US working closely
together, providing leadership to the international community.
Good relations between the UK and the US and between the UK and
the other EU Member States are a necessary condition of that close
transatlantic co-operation. The US Administration share our views
on the importance of a strong Europe, as indicated by Secretary
Clinton's comments in Brussels in March 2009 "President Obama
and I intend to energize the transatlantic relationship and to
promote a strong European Unionand more fundamentally,
a strong Europe| A strong Europe is a strong partner for the United
States, and the Obama Administration intends for the United States
to be a strong partner for Europe".
15. The Government is not and cannot be
complacent about the working of the UK-US bilateral relationship
or the broader transatlantic one. The United States has a complex
political system and foreign policy-making process, and a federal
system in which important powers are reserved for the States.
This requires not just good high level access, but a broad range
of contacts developed across all levels of the Administration.
It also means taking full account of the important role played
by Congress and the increased overlap between domestic and international
priorities. It requires the ability to influence powerful lobby
groupsincluding those whose interests or outlook may be
opposed to those of the UK. It means being able to deal directly
with the powerful US media. It means maintaining a high profile
and visible interest in the individual statesnot merely
to promote British commercial links but to influence public opinion
and opinion formers across the US. Our work on climate change
across the United States is a good example of how our network
of nine Consulates General and the Embassy have influenced the
domestic US debate and the policy of certain states. The Consulates
are also key for our work on Best Practice, where they can identify
innovative ways of delivering public services that might provide
useful lessons for domestically focused Whitehall departments.
16. In short, the UK-US relationship goes
far wider than traditional co-operation over foreign and security
policy. The comprehensive nature of the relationship is reflected
in the work carried out by our posts in the US. They are engaged
in almost all areas of public policy from public health to trade
policy, from transport to immigration and civil liberties, from
aid policy to financial services and banking, from welfare to
education, from drugs control to policing and so on and so forth.
Whilst bringing together each of these strands underscores the
strength of the overall relationship, this memorandum will focus
on foreign policy.
II. CURRENT UK
OBJECTIVES IN
THE UNITED
STATES
17. Among our key objectives in relations
with the US are:
(a) Economic
(i)To promote an open, high growth global economy
by: working with the US, bilaterally and in the G20 framework,
to deliver robust and co-ordinated policy responses to mitigate
the impact of the global downturn; promoting the reform of the
International Financial Institutions (and other international
bodies); resisting protectionist responses and committing to open
markets, including liberalising EU-US air services; and delivering
an ambitious, pro-development conclusion to the Doha Development
Agenda.
(i)To build deep and lasting relationships with
the Administration, the Congress, State Governors and their Administrations,
the Mayors of big cities and senior figures in the business community
throughout the country in order to influence US policy in priority
areas for HMG and in order to contribute to UK policy development
through best practice exchange in line with Whitehall priorities.
(ii)To encourage the US Administration to sign
up to an ambitious post-2012 climate change treaty and the Congress
to ratify it, and to strengthen UK/EU/US co-operation on energy
issues.
(i)To strengthen our co-operation with the US
in the prevention and management of conflict and instability in
regions of key national interest to the UK, in particular Afghanistan/Pakistan,
the Middle East, areas of conflict in Africa and in the European
neighbourhood, on the basis of shared analysis of countries at
risk, a common approach to peace support operations (including
support for the UN's role) and a closer identity of views on the
underlying causes of conflict and instability.
(ii)To harness US capabilities and influence
US policy to develop a shared approach to preventing states from
acquiring WMD, to align more closely our positions on global nuclear
disarmament.
(iii)To co-ordinate all aspects of our counter-terrorism
(CT) activity.
(i)To deliver first-class public services in
support of trade and investment, managed migration and British
citizens abroad.
III. THE ISSUES
The Global Economy
18. The global economic crisis has highlighted
the interdependency of economies and especially of their financial
systems. The UK and US have worked closely together in the G20
and other fora in order to tackle the greatest economic and financial
crisis the world has seen since the 1930s.
19. The key current issue facing the UK and US
economies is securing a sustainable global economic recovery.
In response to the economic crisis, the G20under the UK's
Presidency- has taken unprecedented action to tackle the global
downturn. The London Summit agreed a $1.1 trillion package of
measures to restore growth and jobs and rebuild confidence and
trust in the financial system.
20. The UK and US are both committed to the pledge
made at the London Summit to restore confidence, growth, and jobs;
repair the financial system to restore lending; strengthen financial
regulation to rebuild trust; fund and reform our international
financial institutions to overcome this crisis and prevent future
ones; promote global trade and investment and reject protectionism,
to underpin prosperity; and build an inclusive, green, and sustainable
recovery. Leaders also agreed at the London Summit, the principles
underpinning reform of the global banking system including: bringing
the shadow banking system, including hedge funds, within the global
regulatory net; new international accounting standards; regulation
of credit rating agencies; and an end to tax havens that do not
transfer information on request. The countries also continue to
work together as part of the G20 on reform of the International
Financial Institutions.
21. Whereas preparations for the London
Summit focused on agreeing the immediate response to the crisis,
the focus of the UK-US relationship for the months ahead will
be on promoting a sustained recovery, including identifying and
supporting future sources of growth. The UK's engagement with
the US in preparation for the G20 summit in Pittsburgh on 24-25
September has been an important step in securing sustainable recovery.
22. The UK and US trade and investment relationship
is one of the most quantifiable aspects of the "special relationship"(The
US is the largest investor in the UK, as the UK is the largest
investor in the US and UK exports to the US amount to around £70
billion per year).
Afghanistan and Pakistan
23. There are few areas of contemporary
foreign policy in which the UK and US co-operate as closely as
in Afghanistan and Pakistanin diplomatic, military and
development terms. The UK and US share the same aims of promoting
peace, prosperity and stability in the region. We recognise that
Afghanistan and Pakistan are at very different stages of development,
but they face shared challenges, so we have promoted complementary
strategies but different approaches to the problems in the region.
Since the inauguration of President Obama, the US has recalibrated
its approach to Afghanistan and Pakistan through a review of operations
(in which the UK was closely consulted), and the conclusions of
its new strategy (announced March 2009) showed a high degree of
convergence with the UK strategy presented by the Prime Minister
to the House of Commons in December 2007. The Prime Minister underlined
this when he presented our updated strategy for Afghanistan and
Pakistan to the House of Commons in April 2009.
24. Our aim is, as far as possible, seamless
joint development and implementation of policy. It is taken forward
through frequent contacts between UK and US civil and military
representatives in Kabul, Lashkar Gah, Islamabad, Brussels, London
and Washington. In Kabul, our embassies share information and
analysis on a daily basis; co-ordinating with the UN and international
partners. Apart from our Embassies and military commanders, our
co-ordination involves frequent contacts between the UK's Special
Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan, Sir Sherard Cowper-Coles,
and his opposite number, Ambassador Richard Holbrooke. A senior
British diplomat has been attached to Ambassador Holbrooke's staff,
contributing insights which the US recognise as valuable.
Afghanistan
25. Following the September 11th terrorist
attacks, the US has been at the forefront of the international
community's efforts in Afghanistan since 2001. The UK supported
the US response in Afghanistan and provided a significant number
of troops to the initial phases of Operation Enduring Freedom
(OEF). This support has continued and we are the second largest
contributor to the NATO-led ISAF mission in Afghanistan. President
Obama praised the UK effort in Afghanistan saying, "The contribution
of the British is critical, this is not an American mission."
26. The US is the largest single contributor
of troops to both ISAF and OEF, with around 63,000 troops currently
deployed. It provides the Commander of ISAF (with a British Lieutenant
General as his deputy). It is also the largest contributor of
bilateral aid, committing in excess of $20 billion in reconstruction
aid and pledging more than $10 billion over the next two years.
The US is the lead G8 partner nation on the training of the Afghan
National Army (ANA).
27. Close co-ordination of UK and US resources
in Afghanistan takes place through a wide range of structures.
A key example is UK and US military forces and civilian experts,
including development and Rule of Law specialists, working with
Afghan counterparts and other international partners to deliver
our comprehensive approach on the ground in the Provincial Reconstruction
Team in Lashkar Gah. We have also been working with the US as
they develop their civilian plans, to share our experience in
Helmand and in national level development programmes and encourage
them to align their assistance behind Afghan development priorities
and strengthen the capacity of Afghan government institutions.
28. UK-US military co-operation has recently
been successfully demonstrated with the deployment of the US Marine
Corps 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade (2 MEB) to Helmand earlier
this year. 2 MEB, known as Task Force Leatherneck, have their
headquarters in Camp Bastion, the main UK logistics base in Helmand.
Recent UK and US military operations in Helmand were conducted
simultaneously and shared the common goals of clearing the insurgency
from major population centres to ensure lasting security in the
long-term and a safe environment for voting in the Presidential
election in late August. The value of UK troops to the US was
summed up recently by General Petraeus: "I have always been
impressed by the courage, capacity for independent action, skill
and exceptional will of your soldiers". Regarding the British
forces deployed to Afghanistan he said: "British troops have
been in a very tough place and they have done exceedingly well".
29. We also enjoy strong co-operation with
the US on countering narcotics in Afghanistan. The UK and US have
established the Joint Narcotics Analysis Centre (JNAC) and the
Inter-agency Operations Co-ordination Centre (IOCC), to improve
law enforcement co-ordination mechanisms and to tackle the drugs
trade in Afghanistan. The UK also supports the US-led CN Joint
Inter Agency Task Force, which conducts inter-agency operations
against illicit trafficking. Additionally the UK and US (DfID,
USAID and the PRT [Provincial Reconstruction Team]) jointly funded
the CN (counter-narcotics) Plan for Helmand in 2008-09.
Pakistan
30. The US has significantly stepped up
its engagement with Pakistan, given its strategic importance,
fragility and relationship to the situation in Afghanistan. The
US is now, followed by the UK, the largest bilateral donor to
Pakistan. We have been working to persuade the US to bring its
assistance closer in line with UK practices, including channelling
funding through Government structures and working towards a shared
goal of promoting strategic, long-term partnerships with Pakistan,
based on mutual co-operation.
31. In particular, the UK and US are working
closely together to support Pakistan's efforts to tackle terrorism
effectively and to co-ordinate our own CT programmes. Both the
US and UK have encouraged Pakistan to go faster and further in
its efforts to counter terrorist groups operating on its soil,
including those that threaten India, and are helping to build
its capacity to do so. We have welcomed Pakistan's efforts to
counter Pakistani Taliban groups operating in North West Frontier
Province (NWFP) and the Government of Pakistan's commitment to
a comprehensive strategy for stabilising the border areas. As
part of our wider programme of defence engagement, we are also
working with the US to build the capacity of the Pakistani security
services.
32. Effective co-ordination of development
and capacity building programmes in Pakistan is essential; and
we are working to ensure that international efforts in Pakistan
are as joined up as possible. The UK and US were instrumental
in establishing the Friends of Democratic Pakistan (FoDP) group,
designed to galvanise international political support for Pakistan's
long-term development and to help the Pakistani Government to
tackle the serious development, security and economic problems
it faces. With the advice and support of UK and US experts, the
Government of NWFP has designed a stabilisation plan for the Swat/Malakand
region, which was announced at the FoDP Ministerial meeting on
25 August. We will continue to work closely with the US to ensure
that the implementation of this strategy and the wider FoDP process
is fully supported by the international community.
Iran
33. As two of the members of the E3+3 group
of countries, the US and the UK have worked closely in concert
since 2005 to find a diplomatic solution to the Iran nuclear issue.
The UK's diplomatic presence in Tehran informs regular exchanges
with the US Administration. Our close co-ordination over policy
reflects our shared assessment of the security threat posed by
the continuing development of Iran's nuclear programme, and its
destabilising effect on the wider region. The UK and the US are
both clear that Iran must take urgent steps to assure the international
community that its nuclear programme is for exclusively peaceful
purposes.
34. As members of the E3+3, the US and the UK
are both fully committed to the "dual-track strategy"
of pressure and engagement. Work on the pressure track has included
close US-UK co-ordination during the planning and implementation
of five UN Security Council resolutions on Iran, including three
which impose sanctions. On the engagement track the UK and the
US worked together with the rest of the E3+3 to assemble a package
of incentives to encourage Iran to halt its programme and enter
negotiations. The offer was made in June 2006 and renewed in June
2008, and would provide Iran with everything it needs for a modern
civil nuclear programme, as well as many other benefits.
35. The US conducted a review of its Iran
policy in early 2009, following the inauguration of President
Obama. Following that review, the US made clear that it was now
willing to engage directly with Iran on matters of shared concern,
including in any negotiations on the nuclear file. This shift
in the US position enabled the E3+3 to re-issue an invitation
to Iran to enter talks about its nuclear programme in April 2009.
The UK fully supported the position adopted by the new US Administration.
We consider that the offer of Governors and their Administrations,
the Mayors of big cities and senior figures in the business approach.
36. We envisage that the UK and US approach
to Iran will remain closely aligned over the coming months, during
the period in which Iran's response to the E3+3's April 2009 invitation
will be assessed.
Middle East Peace Process
37. The US and UK fully share the aim of
a settlement in the Middle East Peace Process (MEPP). In his Cairo
speech of 4 June, President Obama clearly outlined the urgency
for a peaceful solution. We welcome the emphasis placed on the
need for all parties to co-operate and work towards a two state
solution.
38. President Obama has engaged early in his
term on the MEPP, both personally and through the appointment
of his envoy, Sen. George Mitchell. We support US efforts: to
secure a freeze on current Israeli settlement activity, and for
Arab countries to demonstrate their willingness to progress towards
the normalisation of relations with Israel, as first set out in
the Arab Peace Initiative. This will be vital in order to restart
negotiations between the parties.
39. The Government has been fully engaged
in support of US efforts. The Prime Minister has held discussions
with President Obama, Prime Minister Netanyahu and President Abbas.
The Foreign Secretary has discussed a number of issues related
to the MEPP with Secretary of State Clinton and Envoy Mitchell.
The Government has also urged Israel and Arab partners to respond
positively to US efforts, with the Foreign Secretary personally
engaging with his counterparts on a regular basis.
Counter-Terrorism
Common Threat
40. The terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001
in the US and 7 July 2005 in the UK, and attacks against US and
UK targets overseas, demonstrated the nature of the threat that
continues to face both our countries (and others) today, a threat
identified in the UK's 2009 National Security Strategy [http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/reports/national_security.aspx]
as "the most significant immediate security threat to the
UK". Al-Qaeda has sought to bring together disparate groups,
networks and individuals into a single global movement with an
anti-western ideology at its heart aimed principally against the
US and the UK.
Shared Response
41. The US is our most important partner
in protecting UK interests at home and overseas from terrorist
attacks and for reducing the threat globally in the long run.
Strategically and operationally we work very closely with the
US, including through our network of posts in key countries as
well as in London and Washington. We have a shared assessment
of the threat and generally share analysis of the solutions. We
share intelligence, collaborate closely on law enforcement and
enjoy regular official contacts at almost every level. This far
outstrips the level of interaction and co-operation with other
nations. This collaboration has led to the disruption of terrorist
attacks in the UK and overseas, for example in Operation Overt.
British, and American, lives are saved as a result of this co-operation.
42. We work together in the fields of defence,
diplomacy and development to deny al-Qaeda and other extremists
safe haven in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Somalia, Yemen and elsewhere,
and to help build the capabilities of such countries to deal with
a terrorist threat. For example, in Pakistan our broad strategies
are increasingly aligned and designed to support the Government
of Pakistan itself in dealing with the difficult issues it faces.
We co-ordinate our counter-terrorism capacity building efforts
in third countries with the US. Although the US has more resources,
the UK can sometimes commit funds more easily, or provide specialised
capabilities.
Future Co-operation
43. Some of the strategic factors that currently
sustain international terrorism are likely to persist including
non resolution of conflicts and disputes, existence of ungoverned
spaces and failing states and the wider availability of technology.
We will therefore continue to work with the US on these issues.
44. The ideology associated with al-Qaeda
is likely to be more resilient than the group itself. We therefore
want to increase our co-operation with the US on countering radicalisation
and extremism (our Prevent agenda, the US' "Countering Violent
Extremism"). We are increasingly sharing knowledge on this
subject and co-ordinating our strategic communications to challenge
the rhetoric of al-Qaeda in local contexts (eg in the tribal areas
of Pakistan) and globally through the internet.
45. Our close relationship, and our pre-9/11
experience of countering terrorism, means we are able to discuss
frankly some difficult and sensitive issues such as those relating
to Guantánamo Bay. We remain closely engaged with the US
Administration on these issues.
46. US CT capabilities are enormous, and
help us achieve UK counter-terrorism objectives (both domestically
and overseas). Without them, it would be considerably harder for
us to achieve our objectives. We continuously consider how the
UK can add value to the CT relationship.
NATO
47. NATO has been the cornerstone of the
UK's defence and security and an essential transatlantic link
for 60 years. President Obama said in January 2009 that "Our
nations share more than a commitment to our common securitywe
share a set of common democratic values. That is why the bond
that links us together cannot be broken, and why NATO is a unique
alliance in the history of the world."[1]
The UK supports this analysis.
48. The US plays a critical role at the
centre of the Alliance, as the world's strongest military power,
the largest troop contributor to NATO operations and the Ally
shouldering the largest share of NATO's budgets. The UK and US
have many shared priorities for the activity and future of NATO.
We want to see an Alliance that: is flexible and capable enough
to tackle a wide range of threats both within the Euro-Atlantic
area and further afield; works in partnership with other international
actors to resolve conflict; and promotes our shared values of
democracy, good governance and liberty. The UK and US have worked
together closely to promote ongoing reform of the Alliance and
its structures to ensure that it is best placed to deal with the
evolving challenges we face.
49. At the Strasbourg/Kehl Summit in April
2009 the Alliance commissioned work on a new Strategic Concept
for agreement at the 2010 Summit in Lisbon. This will set a vision
for NATO's future role and we expect it to tackle: operational
capability; reform of the Alliance; enlargement; relations with
partners and other international organisations, especially the
EU; and NATO's role in tackling new threats such as cyber and
climate security; in addition to continuing to support a NATO
role in addressing threats to our security beyond our borders,
including in Afghanistan through increased use of a comprehensive,
civil-military approach. The former Secretary of State for Defence,
the Rt Hon Geoff Hoon MP, has been appointed by the NATO Secretary
General to his Group of Experts, chaired by former US Secretary
of State Madeleine Albright, which will advise the Secretary General
on the evolution of this concept.
50. The UK believes that a capable and effective
NATO will continue to be of primary importance to our security,
and to the security of all its members. The new US Administration
has made clear that they share this view. The new US Ambassador
to NATO, Ivo Daalder, said in July 2009 that "The North Atlantic
Alliance has always been the place where Washington looks first
for international partners. It does so today and will do so tomorrow."[2]
Nuclear issues
51. As part of our strong defence ties,
the UK and US co-operate closely on nuclear deterrence. The US
and UK provide all the nuclear forces committed to the defence
of NATO and co-operate closely in all elements of the Alliance's
nuclear business. Deterrence, based on an appropriate mix of nuclear
and conventional capabilities, remains a core element of NATO's
overall strategy.
52. Our relationship is underpinned by the
1958 UK-US Agreement for Co-operation on the Uses of Atomic Energy
for Mutual Defence Purposes (MDA). This treaty enables exchanges
between the UK and US on nuclear weapon and propulsion matters
and helps both nations to maintain safe, secure and reliable nuclear
stockpiles and propulsion systems as well as providing a unique
opportunity for peer review between the two countries' nuclear
specialists.
53. The UK nuclear deterrent is fully operationally
independent. The decision making, use and command and control
of the system remain entirely sovereign to the UK. Only the Prime
Minister can authorise use of the system. Our nuclear warheads
are also designed and manufactured in the UK. We procure certain
other elements of the system, such as the D5 Trident missile bodies,
from the US under the auspices of the 1963 Polaris Sales Agreement,
which was amended for Trident in 1982. This arrangement enables
the UK to maintain an operationally independent nuclear deterrent
far more cost-effectively than would otherwise be the case. This
procurement relationship does not undermine the independence of
the deterrent, nor has the US ever sought to exploit it as a means
to influence UK foreign policy.
54. The new US Administration is currently
undertaking a major Nuclear Posture Review, due to report early
next year. We are fully engaged with the review process, including
through high-level consultations and visits to ensure that the
UK's equities both on nuclear deterrence and disarmament are well
understood.
Climate Security
55. The UK is and aims to remain one of
the Administration's closest partners on climate issues due to
our experience of developing and implementing climate policies,
and the substantial diplomatic resources we dedicate to climate
issues. Climate change has been part of the Prime Minister and
Foreign Secretary's conversations with their opposite numbers
and there are regular video-conferences between The Secretary
of State for Energy and Climate Change and Todd Stern, the State
Department's Special Envoy for Climate Change.
56. The UK and US broadly share goals for
action on climate change. Internationally both supported references
in the 2009 G8 communiqué to keeping temperature rise within
2° and to developed countries collectively reducing their
emissions by 80% by 2050. The UK is working to encourage Congress
to pass ambitious legislation as soon as possible. There is strong
interest amongst legislators in the experience of UK businesses
and consumers of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme and other climate
legislation. This year we have organised several high level events
attended by members of Congress and the Administration.
57. In addition the UK has been working
closely with the US National Intelligence Council on climate change
and international security. We also have been feeding in our views
to the Department of Defence as part of their consultative process
on the Quadrennial Defence Review and we have jointly explored
the impacts of climate change on the Arctic.
58. The UK is the US's partner of choice
on climate change at a regional level. Our Embassy and nine Consulates
General regularly exchange views on the UK's climate and energy
experience with local government, business and other stakeholders.
Five US states (California, Florida, Michigan, Wisconsin and Virginia)
have signed bilateral agreements on climate change and energy
with the UK. These are primarily focussed on sharing best practise
for low carbon economic growth. Three US regional emissions trading
schemes continue to seek UK expertise based on our experience
designing, implementing and operating under the EU's Emissions
Trading Scheme.
59. The UK is uniquely well positioned to
work with the US in building momentum for the transition to a
low-carbon economy, given our close relationships with multiple
US agencies, and our advanced domestic programme as laid out in
the Climate Change Act and National Low Carbon Transition Plan.
The US is likely to continue to be interested in the UK experience
as it develops and implements its own domestic programme.
Other Security Issues
Cyber Security
60. The digital information and communications
infrastructure known as "cyberspace" underpins much
of modern society and is critical to the economy, civil infrastructure
and government across the developed world. In recent years awareness
of the vulnerability of this infrastructure to external threats
has increased. In 2009 both the US and UK have responded to these
threats by developing new structures to manage cyber security
on a cross-government basis. The US has created a new Cyber Security
Directorate with the National Security Council staff, is strengthening
cyber security structures in the Department of Homeland Security,
and will create on 1 October a new 4* Cyber Command in the Department
of Defense; the UK has created a new office of Cyber Security
in the Cabinet Office and a Cyber Security Operations Centre,
a multi-agency body hosted in GCHQ in Cheltenham.
61. There are compelling reasons for ensuring
that the US and UK Governments remain closely aligned on this
issue. Our infrastructures are tightly coupled, and the key industry
players are multinational. The dominance of US industry in internet
service provision makes partnership with the US essential for
the UK, but the UK's position as a global communications hub and
as a major inward investor in critical infrastructure services
in the US provides incentives for the US to engage with the UK
as well. Finally, cyber security is becoming an increasingly important
component of overall security collaboration between our two countries.
There are, however, countervailing pressures: for example, the
ICT sector is intensely competitive, which makes players nervous
about sharing threat and vulnerability information widely. And
privacy concerns may be a constraint.
62. This is a rapidly developing field and
our strategic approaches are still evolving. The UK is well plugged
into the new structures emerging in the US. A good working relationship
has developed between the National Security Council staff and
the Cabinet Office, and operational relationships between the
relevant agencies in the US and UK are building on close collaboration
that goes back many decades. It will be important to ensure that
the importance of this co-operation is recognised more widely,
including as the US Congress develops new legislation in this
area.
Organisation for Security and Co-operation in
Europe (OSCE)
63. The UK-US bilateral relationship in
the OSCE remains strong. Our interests are broadly aligned on
key policy issues across its three dimensionsHuman, Politico-Military,
and Economic and Environmental. We both recognise the OSCE's prominent
role in conflict prevention and resolution, not least in terms
of the unresolved conflicts in the former Soviet Union. We both
value the OSCE's key role in advancing democracy, human rights
and good government across the OSCE space. We both strongly support
the work of the Office of Democratic Institutions and Human Rights
(ODIHR) on human rights and election-related activities.
64. We have worked closely with the US in
response to President Medvedev's initiative on European security.
Following close co-operation between the UK, US and other partners,
the Informal OSCE Ministerial held in Corfu on 27-28 June 2009
established, amongst other things, the centrality of the OSCE
for this debate and the importance of the trans-atlantic dimension.
65. We continue to support the US-led negotiations
on the Parallel Actions Package with Russia aimed at bringing
about the earliest possible entry into force of the Adapted Conventional
Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty and, meanwhile, Russian resumption
of implementation of the CFE.
European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP)
66. Both the UK and the US support and encourage
the development of the EU's role in crisis management, and of
EU-US co-operation in tackling international security problems.
President Obama made clear even before his election that he was
determined to intensify the US-Europe relationship, saying in
Berlin in July 2008 that "In this century|[America needs]
... a strong European Union that deepens the security and prosperity
of this continent". Vice President Biden further confirmed
the Administration's support for ESDP, in Munich in February 2009
saying that "We also support the further strengthening of
European defence, an increased role for the European Union in
preserving peace and security, a fundamentally stronger NATO-EU
partnership and deeper co-operation with countries outside the
Alliance who share our common goals and principles". The
UK agrees with these views.
67. The UK supports the involvement of third
states in EU civilian crisis management missions as a way to widen
the expertise available to a mission and to further internationalise
engagement in a crisis. A country with significant international
experience such as the US is ideally placed to bring additional
skills and capacity to an ESDP mission. The growing confidence
of the US in ESDP is shown most obviously through the fact that
75 US personnel are for the first time taking part in an EU mission,
the EU Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo, as well as the close and
effective co-operation that has been established between EU and
US military operations, for example in the counter-piracy operations
off the coast of Somalia, where the activity of the EU (to which
the UK is a key contributor, providing the operational HQ), NATO
and US-led Coalition Maritime Forces is successfully co-ordinated
by a joint mechanism. We also work with the US to strengthen the
EU-NATO relationship and help to ensure that their efforts are
mutually reinforcing.
The Comprehensive Approach
68. The UK and US governments both recognise
the importance of the Comprehensive Approach (CA) to civil-military
co-operation in the delivery of operational effect, and are leading
exponents in its international promotion and implementation. The
UK and US are working together closely on various training initiatives
in order to develop deeper shared understanding of the CA and
the most effective means for its delivery and further development.
We also work together on joint planning and conduct of military
and civil-military exercises, as we have both recognised the need
to develop CA multilaterally and the need to improve co-operation
between institutions.
69. The planning and delivery by the Civil-Military
Mission in Helmand (CMMH) based in Lashkar Gah, Afghanistan, best
illustrates the extent of the alignment between our concepts and
the close co-ordination of UK and US civilian and military capabilities.
Here UK and US military forces, civilian experts, their Afghan
counterparts and other international partners are working towards
delivering a comprehensive approach to conflict resolution and
stabilisation.
70. The UK Government submitted evidence
on the implementation of the CA as part of the recent Defence
Select Committee Inquiry into the Comprehensive Approach, including
in response to specific questions as to how the UK was working
with the US
[http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_committees/defence_committee/def090325_no_26.cfm]
Conventional Arms Control
71. On 3 December 2008 the UK signed the
Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM). The Convention prohibits
the use, development, production, stockpiling, retention or transfer
of cluster munitions. The US did not participate in the negotiations
that led to the adoption of the CCM and has not signed the Convention.
Despite this, we have found some common ground and continue to
work to expand this. Article 21 of the CCM provides for continued
engagement in military co-operation and operations with non-States
Parties, which was vital for the UK's ability to operate alongside
the US and other NATO Allies. The Article also places an obligation
on States Parties to encourage non-States Parties to join the
Convention. The UK will play its full part in these efforts. Recent
changes to US policy on cluster munitions are positive steps:
after 2018 the US will only employ cluster munitions containing
sub-munitions that, after arming, do not result in more than 1%
unexploded ordnance. Congress has also included a provision, prohibiting
exports of cluster munitions that have a failure rate higher than
1%, in the financial year 2009 Omnibus Appropriation legislation.
72. In parallel with these steps taken nationally,
the US and UK are participating together in the ongoing negotiations
aimed at adopting a protocol on cluster munitions within the Convention
on Certain Conventional Weapons.
US-UK Defence Equipment Collaboration
73. The UK enjoys a close relationship with
the US which covers a broad range of joint capabilities and programmes:
the development of high-tech, state of the art equipment to off-the-shelf
purchase of components. This delivers enhanced interoperability
as well as helping to meet the UK's priority of securing the best
equipment for our Armed Forces.
74. UK-owned defence companies have a major
presence in the US which represents the UK's second largest defence
export market. Currently, the UK and the US are partners in 22
collaborative equipment programmes, the most significant of which
is the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) programme. The UK is the US'
only Level 1 (ie closest) JSF partner which allows the UK to have
a major influence on the basic design of the aircraft and other
areas of the programme. The programme contributes significantly
to the strength of our defence relationship and has reinforced
the US-UK industrial relationship, with over 100 UK companies
involved in the programme.
75. The US Government and industry have
also provided invaluable support to the UK Armed Forces, in acquiring
equipment, ranging from Reaper Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Mastiff
Armoured vehicles. The US Government also actively helped to expedite
export licenses to meet Urgent Operational Requirements in both
Iraq and Afghanistan.
76. The US International Traffic in Arms
Regulations (ITAR) control the export of equipment, technology
and other information on the US Munitions List and can be a significant
bureaucratic hurdle for industry in obtaining US export licences.
In 2007 Prime Minister Blair and President Bush signed the US-UK
Defence Trade Co-operation Treaty (considered by the House of
Commons Defence Committee on 11 December 2007), which seeks to
relieve this burden for the transfer of specified categories of
equipment, technology and information. This is currently awaiting
ratification by the Senate. This would allow the UK to access,
more quickly, material required to support operations, help improve
interoperability between our forces and enable our defence industries
to work more closely together. The UK continues to work closely
with the US Administration to prepare for ratification and subsequent
implementation.
Ballistic Missile Defence
77. Like the US, the UK recognises that
there is an increasing threat from ballistic missiles which could
carry weapons of mass destruction. We welcome the recent US review
which demonstrates again the real US commitment to the defence
of Europe, and continued close co-operation between the US and
NATO allies on developing anti-missile systems. The new missile
defence architecture aims to provide a robust and timely defence
to the short- and medium-range ballistic missile threats that
the NATO Alliance is most likely to face in the near future. As
it evolves, the proposed NATO architecture will also be able to
address the potential threat of longer-range missiles that may
develop in a longer timeframe. As the US have set out, their new
programme will enable the threat to be addressed earlier and more
flexibly, based on proven, effective technology; be able to cover
the whole NATO European territory, including the UK should the
threat evolve; and which can be shared across NATO.
78. In 2003 the UK signed a Memorandum of
Understanding with the US to facilitate bilateral information
exchanges, undertake co-operative work, and allow for fair opportunities
for UK industry to participate in the US BMD programme. The UK
also directly supports the US BMD systems by providing early warning
information from the radar at RAF Fylingdales, and by allowing
the US to use a satellite downlink at RAF Menwith Hill. This will
continue. The UK has no plans to host further BMD assets, or develop
a BMD capability of our own, although we keep this policy under
review.
Non-Proliferation Treaty
79. Strengthening the nuclear non-proliferation
regime and the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), is a key United
Kingdom foreign policy priority. We have long recognised that
US leadership is essential if we are to achieve it. The Government
has worked intensively in the United States and elsewhere over
the last two years to make the case for an ambitious but balanced
strengthening of the NPT's three pillars of non-proliferation,
disarmament and peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to advocate
the long-term goal of a world free from nuclear weapons. We warmly
welcome President Obama's leadership and personal commitment to
nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament, including the eventual
abolition of nuclear weapons. This was a major factor in the much
improved atmospherics at the May 2009 NPT Preparatory Committee.
President Obama's praise for the United Kingdom's "Road to
2010" plan, published on 16 July, demonstrates the complementarity
of UK and US approaches. We will continue to work closely with
the United States and the other Nuclear Weapon States to exercise
political and moral leadership on non-proliferation, set out a
clear and credible forward plan towards multilateral nuclear disarmament
and achieve a clear mandate at the 2010 NPT Review Conference
to strengthen the nuclear non-proliferation regime. We welcome
the conference that the US will be hosting early next year on
nuclear security, and are also encouraged by the commitment of
the US and Russia to conclude a successor to START I by the end
of 2009.
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
80. The UK works closely with the US Government
on CTBT issues. UK experts enjoy excellent working relationships
with US officials on the many policy and technical aspects of
the CTBT. This is particularly true for the development of the
CTBT's highly technical verification regime. US experts are now
engaging in negotiations to prepare key tools of the On Site Inspection
(OSI) regime.
81. The Administration of President Obama
has opened up new opportunities for taking forward work on CTBT
issues. The UK warmly welcomes the positive commitment of President
Obama to pursue US ratification of the CTBT, which offers new
hope for the Entry into Force of the CTBT. The development of
the Treaty's OSI regime in particular offers highly promising
new areas of co-operation. The OSI regime will be a key element
in verifying compliance with the CTBT.
Cooperative Threat Reduction Programmes
82. The UK and US co-ordinate very closely
on policy and implementation of the G8 Global Partnership against
the spread of weapons and materials of mass destruction. UK programmes
in support of the Global Partnership are implemented as part of
the UK's Global Threat Reduction Programme (GTRP), as set out
in the Government's Annual Report (see http://www.fco.gov.uk/resources/en/pdf/3052790/global-threat-2008-100209).
83. GTRP works closely with the US on a
number of programmes in its nuclear and radiological portfolio.
Our flagship joint project, in partnership with the US Department
of Energy (DOE), is the decommissioning of the former Soviet Plutonium-producing
reactor at Aktau in Kazakhstan. Between 2004 and 2006 GTRP contributed
£11 million to the US-led international programme to ensure
the irreversible closure of the Plutonium-producing reactor in
Zheleznogorsk.
84. Both the UK and US have been engaged
in programmes of assistance with construction of the chemical
weapon destruction facility at Shchuch'ye in the Russian Federation,
which successfully started operations in March 2009. The initial
UK funding commitment for Shchuch'ye in 2000 helped to secure
Congressional support for US funding for Shchuch'ye, which totalled
$1 billion making this the US's largest single cooperative threat
reduction project. Since that time, the UK has maintained close
co-ordination with the US to ensure complementarity and co-ordination
between our respective programmes.
85. The US has developed a major cooperative
threat reduction programme in the biological area, to reduce the
risks of proliferation of materials and expertise that could be
misused by states or terrorists for biological weapons purposes.
The UK co-ordinates with the US to ensure that our respective
programmes complement each other, especially in the Former Soviet
Union and Iraq.
Nuclear Security
86. Because of the global spread of nuclear
power and advances in nuclear technology, we need timely and concerted
international action to prevent terrorist groups gaining access
to nuclear material and devices and to secure international consensus
for making nuclear security the fourth pillar of the multilateral
nuclear framework.
87. As part of this multilateral effort,
the UK is playing a leading role in tackling the nuclear security
challenges that we face. The momentum for concerted action is
building. President Obama has announced plans for a nuclear security
summit in Spring 2010. We strongly support this initiative and
are committed to working with the US and other governments to
ensure that we develop an effective global response to the threat
of nuclear terrorism.
Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism
(GICNT)
88. The Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear
Terrorism (GICNT) provides regular opportunities for UK and US
officials and other partners to discuss areas of mutual interest
and share technical expertise on a wide range of issues concerning
nuclear security, for example in relation to detection. UK-US
co-operation continues in this area with a joint GICNT workshop
on detection planned for early 2010.
Proliferation Security Initiative
89. Launched by President Bush in May 2003,
the Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) is a multinational
capacity-building initiative working towards more co-ordinated
and effective combating of illicit trafficking in WMD, their delivery
systems and related materials. As indicated in President Obama's
Prague speech, the new US Administration sees an important role
for PSI in international Counter-Proliferation efforts for years
to come. The UK shares this vision and is working with US colleagues
on how the initiative can become more effective in combating the
proliferation challenges of the future.
Space
90. The UK liaises closely with the US in
this area. The focus of UK policy on space is on civil and scientific
uses, and we firmly believe that all states have the right to
explore outer space and make the most of opportunities for scientific,
economic, environmental and communications advances. In addition,
the security benefits the UK derives from the military use of
space are important. Satellite communications, mapping, early
warning, navigation, sensing and treaty verification are all integral
to our national security responsibilities. As stated in the June
2009 National Security Strategy Update, the Cabinet Office will
lead a Government review of the strategic security of the UK's
interests in space. President Obama has also recently announced
that the US will undertake a review of its national space policy.
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
91. The US has been a strong and active
supporter of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) since the negotiation
of the Treaty began in the 1980s. The UK and the US share a number
of priorities and co-ordinate closely. Key areas of co-operation
include strengthening the verification regime, for example through
increasing and better targeting industry inspections to address
areas of greatest relevance to the Convention; pressing for comprehensive
and effective national implementation of CWC obligations and ensuring
that the verification regime keeps pace with technological and
scientific developments.
92. The UK has worked closely with the US
and other partners in assisting with Iraq's preparations to join
the CWC, just as we did in the case of Libya's accession to the
CWC in 2004. Iraq acceded to the CWC in January 2009. We and the
US continue to work together in providing post-accession assistance
to Iraq, for example, in providing training to Iraqi officials
responsible for national implementation of the Convention.
Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC)
93. As a depositary (like the UK) of the
Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), the US takes an
active and constructive role in the current BTWC work programme.
Although the Obama Administration has yet to complete a review
of its policies on the BTWC, the UK Government has already taken
several opportunities at official level to discuss the next steps
on the Convention, and in particular on approaches to the Seventh
Review Conference in 2011, where constructive US engagement will
be a key factor in agreeing a substantial programme of future
work.
Arms Trade Treaty (ATT)
94. The US and the UK work closely in a
number of areas to help prevent the proliferation of conventional
arms, and share the common aim of seeking to strengthen global
arms export controls. The US however has concerns about how an
ATT might impact on their right to export and on domestic gun
ownership. They are also concerned that to have widespread adherence,
an ATT would have to aim at lower standards than they would see
as adequate and thereby simply legitimise the status quo.
This has meant that our countries have differed so far on whether
an ATT would be the most effective way of dealing with the problems
associated with the unregulated trade in conventional arms.
95. The Government has maintained a very
close dialogue with the US up to the most senior Ministerial levels
since 2006 and has addressed their main concerns on the right
to export and domestic ownership. Although the US have been the
only country to vote consistently against work towards an ATT
in the UN, they remain a participant in the UN process and have
participated fully in the discussions in the UN Working Groups
on ATT held this year.
96. The Foreign Secretary has reiterated
to Secretary of State Clinton and to Senator John Kerry that we
would not support a weak ATT. We hope that the emerging signs
of a re-evaluation of the role of the US in the UN ATT process
will result in a change in US policy on an ATT.
Intelligence
97. The UK has a long established and
very close intelligence relationship with the US, which owes much
to our historical and cultural links. The continuing high value
of this relationship has been demonstrated on many occasions in
recent years and on a wide variety of issues. We share many common
objectives, including countering terrorism, drugs and serious
crime. The closeness of this intelligence relationship allows
us to extend our own national capabilities in ways that would
not otherwise be possible and is invaluable.
98. Our intelligence relationship with the
US includes a range of collection and assessment activities involving
all of the UK's intelligence machinery. A fuller account of this
relationship has been provided.[3]
OTHER UN, GLOBAL
AND TRADE
POLICY ISSUES
Co-operation in the UN Security Council, and on
UN Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding
99. As Permanent Members of the UN Security
Council, the UK and US share particular responsibilities for decisions
on maintenance of international peace and security, and we are
both committed to ensuring that the UN is able to draw on the
full range of tools at its disposal to deliver this.
100. In pursuit of common objectives the UK and
US continue to work closely together across the range of issues
at the UN Security Council (UNSC). In recent months close co-operation
has resulted in UN action on topics such as Burma, DPRK, Iran,
Somalia, Sri Lanka and Sudan (all covered in more detail elsewhere
in this memorandum). For example, we and the US have worked to
ensure sanctions have been tightened on the DPRK (in the light
of its further missile and nuclear tests); and that strong statements
have been made on Burma (to address the ongoing detention of Aung
San Suu Kyi) as well as on Sri Lanka (to address concerns about
the humanitarian impact of military operations).
101. UN peacekeeping is a crucial area of
UN activity, which has seen significant growth over recent years.
We are both committed to ensuring the UN makes the most effective
and efficient use of resources available and that the efforts
of peacekeepers on the ground are backed up by broader engagement
to build sustainable peace.
102. The US and UK (with some US$2.04 billion
(26.4%) and US$606 million (7.8%) respectively), are among the
biggest contributors to UN peacekeeping costs, and have worked
together to ensure that missions are tasked to find savings and
efficiencies. In a welcome move, the United States announced in
a Security Council meeting on 5 August that it had cleared all
peacekeeping arrears accumulated from 2005 to 2008 (totalling
$159 million) and had every expectation of meeting its obligations
for 2009, currently estimated at approximately $2.2 billion, in
full.
103. In the coming months, the UK and the
US will continue to work together on a range of issues affecting
international peacekeeping, where we are already pressing for
improvements on planning, mandate design, and monitoring and evaluation.
The UK is also working closely with the US on building global
capacity in support of international peacekeeping. Building on
the 2004 G8 Sea Island Summit commitments, the US and the UK have
consecutively hosted international meetings over the last two
years which have brought together the international peacekeeping
community to address the challenges of meeting the operational
needs for peacekeeping missions. We also intend to build on existing
US-UK co-operation to address more comprehensively a range of
complex issues affecting the conduct of peacekeeping missions,
including women in peace and security, robust peacekeeping and
the protection of civilians.
104. To complement our work on peacekeeping,
the UK initiated a new phase of work in the UN to improve its
peacebuilding efforts, following a special meeting of the Security
Council chaired by the Foreign Secretary in May 2008. We have
increasingly engaged with the US, following the transition to
a new US Administration, which, like the UK, is pursuing a comprehensive
approach to enhancing international effectiveness across the conflict
cycle. We will continue to work with the US to contribute to wider
efforts: to ensure rapid implementation of the recommendations
within the Secretary-General's Report; on preparations for the
Peacebuilding Commission review in 2010; and on building links
between peacebuilding and peacekeeping.
Energy Security
105. Both the US and UK recognise that access
to diverse, reliable and affordable energy supplies is central
to the global economy and global security; share a similar approach
to achieving energy security; and work together closely bilaterally
and multilaterally in pursuit of our aims. These include increasing
the transparency and efficiency of the global oil market; working
to eliminate fossil fuel and electricity subsidies; diversifying
sources of supply; reducing our dependence on hydrocarbons through
driving investment in clean energy and energy efficiency; and
reducing energy poverty.
106. The UK and US have a shared interest in
improving the EU's energy security through diversification of
sources and routes of supply. The most visible manifestation of
this policy is the development of the Southern Corridor, a route
to bring hydrocarbons from the Caspian to Europe via Turkey, which
the US strongly supports. US interest lies in bringing Caspian
energy products to world markets, in assisting Caspian region
states as they work to diversify their export routes, encouraging
the EU to diversify its sources of gas supply. Both countries
would also be keen in the medium term to investigate the potential
to use the Southern Corridor to export Iraqi gas to the EU as
well, assuming the political conditions allow.
107. US diplomacy was instrumental in bringing
the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) and the South Caucasus Pipeline
(SCP) oil pipeline projects to fruition. The US has considerable
influence in the region, and will have a key role to play as the
Southern Corridor develops.
UN Human Rights/Democracy
108. The new Administration shares our belief
that the promotion of human rights and democracy is integral to
the pursuit of our strategic objectives, not least our shared
security. President Obama stated in Accra that democracy was a
universal value, and one that was crucial to sustainable development.
The new Administration recognises the UK and the EU as indispensable
partners in global democracy promotion. They have sought our views
on reclaiming and reinvigorating the democracy agenda.
109. Bilaterally, we continue to work alongside
the US around the world to promote human rights in specific countries.
Our complementary strengths, networks and alliances play an important
role in this regard. The new Administration has acknowledged that
the human rights agenda includes lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender
issues, and has turned to us for our experience in this area.
110. At the UN, we welcomed US re-engagement
with and subsequent election to the Human Rights Council. Both
here and at the UN General Assembly's Third Committee, the new
Administration is already putting into effect a new policy of
reaching out to non-traditional partners to find common ground,
whilst defending international human rights institutions and the
universal principles that underpin them. We welcome this new approach
and have already seen its benefits in, for example, the renewal
of the Council's monitoring of Sudan.
111. There are, of course, some important
differences between the UK and the EU on the one hand and the
US on the other. EU opposition to the death penalty is well known,
and we will continue to make it known in general and on specific
cases. In UN fora, different approaches to economic rights, the
rights of the child, and limits on freedom of expression have
all caused difficulties between the EU and US in the past.
International Criminal Justice
112. The UK and US share a common agenda
on issues relating to international criminal justice. Both governments
work closely together in the UN Security Council on the Yugoslavia
and Rwanda tribunals, and both governments have been among the
principal donors to the Special Court for Sierra Leone. The US
has also recently become a donor to the Khmer Rouge Tribunal and
now sits, with the UK, on the UN Steering Committee which provides
administrative oversight over the court.
113. With 110 States Parties, the International
Criminal Court has, in UK eyes, successfully established itself
as the permanent judicial institution at the very centre of the
global fight against impunity. We note that President Obama, Secretary
Clinton and US Ambassador to the UN Susan Rice have all spoken
positively of the Court. We hope that US co-operation with the
Court will continue and increase. We will continue to encourage
and assist the US in overcoming its concerns about co-operating
with the Court, focusing on the areas of greatest concern, such
as Sudan, where our interests most clearly converge.
Development
114. There is a great deal of common interest
and collaboration in UK and US development policy, on countries
(e.g. Zimbabwe), on policies (e.g. faster progress on neglected
tropical diseases), and in relation to other institutions (e.g.
The Global Fund for AIDS, TB and Malaria). The recent White Paper
Building our Common Future sets out key challenges in development
policy for the UK and many of those, including security, the need
for the international system to work better, and value for money
remain common. The UK has an active dialogue on security and development
including country specific collaboration (e.g. Afghanistan), sharing
best practice (e.g. stabilisation training practices and conflict
assessments) and in working together to ensure more effective
multilateral responses to post-conflict reconstruction.
115. President Obama's Administration has
committed itself to increasing levels of US development spending,
working in a more co-ordinated way with other donors and to a
US system for development which is more joined up, and where the
US fully participates in the Millennium Development Goals. We
continue to encourage the US to take on a greater global leadership
role in development. We hope to develop stronger programmatic
partnerships in the areas of global health and education and to
work towards closer alignment of broader policies affecting developing
countries such as trade, climate change financing, and peace-building.
116. There are some philosophical differences
between the UK and US development approaches, particularly in
relation to untying assistance from national suppliers (UK is
100% untied), the use of developing country systems, focus on
the poorest countries, and ability to make predictable, long-term
commitments with partner countries.
Counter-narcotics
117. The UK and US have a common interest
in tackling drugs trafficking and international organised crime.
As such the US is a key strategic partner, both bilaterally and
through the multilateral institutions, on both general drugs and
crime policy and on specific issues such as Afghanistan counter-narcotics.
The UK works closely with US partners at a policy and operational
level on countries such as Afghanistan and Colombia, and regions
such as the Caribbean and West Africa. Our network of posts acts
as a platform for our partners across government to operate from,
for example the Serious Organised Crime Agency which has representatives
based in our Consulate-General in Miami.
Extradition and Mutual Legal Assistance
118. One aspect of our co-operation in fighting
serious crime relates to extradition and mutual legal assistance.
The UK-US Extradition Treaty 2003 was signed on 31 March 2003.
It came into force when both Governments exchanged instruments
of ratification on 26 April 2007. Present-day arrangements redress
the imbalance in the previous (1972) Treaty, under which the US
was required to demonstrate a prima facie evidential case
in support of extradition requests made to the UK, whereas the
UK only had to demonstrate "probable cause".
119. Between 1 January 2004 and 31 August
2009, 49 people have been extradited from the UK pursuant to extradition
requests made by the US. In the same period, 28 people have been
extradited from the US to the UK. Since the Treaty came into force
on 26 April 2007 and up to 31 August 2009, 12 people have been
extradited to the US as a result of extradition requests made
to the UK since 26 April 2007; whilst 16 people have been extradited
from the US to the UK as a result of extradition requests made
to the US. These figures do not include requests made to or by
Scotland or Northern Ireland (prior to 1 April 2008). Scotland
deals with its own US extradition cases, as did Northern Ireland
until 1 April 2008 when the Home Office assumed responsibility
for extradition.
120. Under the new arrangements, the information
that must be provided in order for a UK extradition request to
proceed in the US is in practice the same as for a US request
to proceed in the UK. On the one hand, the UK is required to demonstrate
"probable cause" in the US courts. In American law this
is described as "facts and circumstances which are sufficient
to warrant a prudent person to believe a suspect has committed,
is committing, or is about to commit a crime". The US is
required to demonstrate "reasonable suspicion" in UK
courts. This has been defined in UK case law in the following
terms, "circumstances of the case should be such that a reasonable
man acting without passion or prejudice would fairly have suspected
the person of having committed the offence".
Scientific Collaboration
121. The US is the largest investor in scientific
research in the world, investing $368 billion in 2007. The US
invests more on R&D than the rest of the G7 countries combined,
accounts for around 36% of world R&D spending and employs
37% of OECD researchers (more than the whole of the EU combined).
The US and the UK are each other's most important research collaborators
with 30% of the UK's international collaborations being with the
US (more than double with any other country), and 13% of the US's
collaborations being with the UK. The new Administration has placed
a high priority on science seeing it as the foundation of the
"new energy economy" that will drive the next generation
of US growth and wealth creation. In order to improve the quality
of UK science the US Science and Innovation Network facilitates
new collaborations in areas of high priority for the UK such as
climate science, biomedical (including stem cell research) and
nanotechnology, and has helped UK researchers to access substantial
US funding.
OTHER FOREIGN
POLICY ISSUES
India
122. There is a general convergence of views
between the UK and the US on India. The UK regards the strategic
re-alignment of US-India relations in recent years, which started
under the previous Administration, as a positive development.
The American Administration pursues an approach which recognises
India's pivotal role in maintaining stability in South Asia and
its increasing global role as a member of the G20, leading developing
nation and economic powerhouse, as well as a country with a key
role in addressing global challenges such as climate change.
123. The UK supported the US India nuclear deal
which offered India a perspective on regularising its nuclear
arrangements, encouraged India to behave in line with international
non-proliferation norms and helped to meet India's energy needs
from uranium, thus reducing global competition for energy from
hydrocarbons. The UK played a prominent role in promoting international
consensus in support of the deal. UK support was welcomed by the
US government.
Sri Lanka
124. The UK and the US took a very similar line
to the conflict between the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)
and the Government of Sri Lanka (GoSL). In February and May the
Foreign Secretary and Secretary of State Clinton issued joint
statements in response to the deteriorating situation. We have
been in full agreement with the US that only a fully inclusive
political settlement could lead to lasting peace between Sri Lanka's
communities. Since the end of the conflict in May the US and the
UK have both been pressing the GoSL to take necessary measures
to meet the needs of the almost 300,000 internally displaced persons.
We have also been pressing the government to address minority
concerns and to take effective action to tackle human rights issues.
Iraq
125. The UK's involvement in Iraq is the
subject of an inquiry led by Rt Hon Sir John Chilcot as announced
to the House of Commons by the Prime Minister on 15 June. However,
it is worth highlighting the strength of the UK and US relationship
in our support of emerging Iraqi democracy since 2003.
126. Throughout this period the UK and US
have worked very closely both diplomatically and militarily. The
UK filled key roles in the Coalition Provisional Authority and
our personnel worked with US colleagues in key Baghdad ministries
before and after transition to the Government of Iraq. The UK
contributions to the Iraqi Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Defence
and the Interior were particularly substantial and British civilians
were recognised by the US Government on a number of occasions.
127. After transition, the UK and US Embassies
have continued to co-operate closely in support of the Iraqi Government
and political development in Iraq. We are at present working with
the US in assisting Iraq's efforts to normalise its relationships
with both neighbouring states and the United Nations Security
Council (by addressing the Security Council Resolutions relating
to Iraq) as well as promoting dialogue within Iraq on outstanding
internal political issues such as the Arab/Kurdish dispute; the
reconciliation process with disaffected Sunni groups; and intra-Shia'a
reconciliation.
128. The UK was a significant contributor
to the US-led Multinational ForceIraq, taking command of
and contributing the majority of forces to the Division in southern
Iraq. The US provided significant resources to support the Division,
including vital ISTAR (Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition
and Reconnaissance) capabilities.
129. The UK provided key personnel to Coalition
headquarters in Baghdad, including the Deputy Force Commander,
and UK forces participated in counter-terrorism operations in
Baghdad. Throughout the presence of UK forces in Iraq, senior
US commanders went on record to commend the UK military contribution
and were clear that UK strategy in southern Iraq was devised "in
close consultation and dialogue with the senior operational command
of the multi-national corps."[4]
Libya
130. The UK and US have co-operated closely
for over a decade on a range of issues in relation to Libya. We
worked together to investigate and bring to trial those responsible
for the 1998 Lockerbie bombing in 2001, to persuade Libya voluntarily
to renounce its WMD in 2003 and to end its support for international
terrorism. We continue to work together on important Libya-related
issues, including counter-terrorism and counter-proliferation.
131. The 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over
Lockerbie was an appalling act of terror. We understand the depth
of feeling in the US and elsewhere over the decision by the Scottish
Justice Secretary, Kenny MacAskill, on 20 August to grant compassionate
release to Abelbasset Al-Megrahi, the man convicted of the crime,
and the manner of his reception in Libya. In particular we understand
the pain the decision has caused to the families of those on board
Flight 103, the people of Lockerbie and many others. But as Ministers
have consistently said, the decision was for Scottish Ministers
to make.
132. Despite the well publicised US Administration
criticism of this decision, the US and UK retain a shared strategic
interest in ensuring Libya continues to abide by international
norms.
Zimbabwe
133. General approach to Zimbabwe:
The US and UK continue to work closely together on Zimbabwean
issues. Both are committed to assisting, where possible, the Inclusive
Government to achieve the political and economic reforms to which
the parties in Zimbabwe have committed. The UK and US are two
of the largest bilateral donors to Zimbabwe and work closely together
and with other international donors on the provision of humanitarian
and other essential aid. The UK will contribute £60 million
to Zimbabwe this year, the US over $114 million. Prime Minister
Tsvangirai visited Washington and London, amongst other capitals,
during a tour in June 2009, meeting the most senior political
leaders in both countries. The US and UK governments urged the
same message upon him; that we are willing to do all we can to
assist the government and people of Zimbabwe, including the provision
of more support, subject to further progress in the Zimbabwe government
delivering its commitments on the ground. The US and UK are also
working closely togetherand, again, with international
partnersin encouraging constructive Zimbabwean re-engagement
with the International Financial Institutions.
134. Sanctions: Both the UK, via the EU,
and the US maintain targeted measures against individuals and
companies associated with the violence and human rights abuses
of the Mugabe regime, and agree that these measures should not
be lifted until there is evidence of substantial further progress
on the ground.
Sudan
135. The UK works closely with the US on
supporting peace and reducing poverty in Sudan. Both countries
strongly support implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement
(CPA), the UN/AU-led political process for Darfur, UNAMID deployment
and provide significant development and humanitarian assistance.
Progress in all these areas is vital for all the people of Sudan,
including in Darfur. The US and UK are the largest and second
largest bilateral providers of humanitarian assistance in Sudan.
136. The UK and US are committed to supporting
peace in Darfur. A Tanzanian battalion funded, trained and equipped
by the UK & US will be deploying September 2009 with an advance
party already in Darfur. In March this year, the UK gave £1.85
million to the US to assist with training and equipping of the
Sierra Leone Reconnaissance Company. This will be Sierra Leone's
first ever deployment to a UN Peacekeeping mission after years
of receiving international aid in a number of areas. They are
scheduled to deploy November 2009. We continue to explore options
for future US/UK co-operation on deployment and funding of UNAMID
and building peace in Darfur.
Somalia
137. The UK and US share a common goal of
a stable, prosperous and secure Somalia. Our policies to achieve
this goal are similar, and we work closely to realise it, collaborating
at the UN Security Council and through regular bilateral dialogue
in London, Washington, Nairobi, and elsewhere in the region. We
both fully support the Djibouti process and the efforts of the
Transitional Federal Government of Somalia (TFG) to achieve peace
and security. We continue to work closely with the US to support
a stable political settlement in Somalia which can underpin future
development, and are clear that any long-term solution must be
Somali generated and not imposed from the outside. The UK and
US share a common will to prevent Somalia becoming an unchallenged
safe haven for international terrorists. Failure to do so will
leave the UK, the US and our allies in the region open to the
direct threat of terrorist attack.
138. Prolonged violence and instability in Somalia
has also led to an increase in piracy in the Gulf of Aden and
the Indian Ocean. The UK and US governments work closely together
as part of the international effort to counter-piracy off the
coast of Somaliaboth through our work at the UNSC and in
the Contact Group on Piracy, and in our naval collaboration.
Nigeria
139. UK and US relations concerning Nigeria
are good, cemented by regular contact and a close relationship
at official levels. The key areas of co-operation include the
fight against corruption and narcotics trafficking, efforts to
promote stability in the Niger Delta and UK-US military co-operation
in training Nigerian peacekeepers.
140. Development co-operation is also strong.
DFID works closely with USAID across the human development sectors:
health, education, HIV/AIDS. Both USAID and DFID also participate
in a country-level Political Governance Working Group; a group
which will co-ordinate the international community's response
to the 2011 elections and the broader democratisation process
in Nigeria.
China
141. In President Obama's words "the
relationship between the US and China will shape the 21st century,
which makes it as important as any bilateral relationship in the
world". The stance the US and China take on issues like climate
change, the global economy, and on foreign policy challenges such
as counter-proliferation, Afghanistan/Pakistan, or Africa will
have a key impact on the UK's interests in those areas. The Government
engages closely with the US Administration on the Chinese approach
and on US/China relations on such issues.
142. Secretary Clinton set out the Obama Administration's
approach to China in February this year, saying that it was "committed
to pursuing a positive relationship". This is similar to
the UK's strategy of constructive engagement outlined in UK
& China: A Framework for Engagement which the Foreign
Secretary launched in January. Our objectives as set out in that
strategy align closely with those of the US notably to foster
China's emergence as a responsible global player and to promote
sustainable development, modernisation and internal reform in
China.
Burma
143. The UK and US share policy objectives
in Burma, including benchmarks for progress by the regimethe
unconditional release of Aung San Suu Kyi (ASSK) and all other
political prisoners, and a credible and inclusive political process
leading up to free and fair elections. We have regular exchanges
of views on how best to work towards these objectives. We also
co-operate closely on the ground in Rangoon.
144. In February this year, Secretary of State
Clinton launched an interagency review of US Burma policy. The
US sought our views at official level. We are remaining in close
touch with US officials, as their thinking develops and will continue
to concert so that our approaches remain consistent.
Russia
145. The UK and the US, along with our EU
and NATO partners, have common objectives in engaging with Russia,
aiming to encourage Russia to work within international rules-based
frameworks for co-operation and to meet its commitments to the
international community. The reset in US-Russia relations, culminating
in the July 2009 Moscow summit, has potential for bringing about
progress on a range of areas where the US and UK have shared interests.
We support the development of strong US-Russia relations across
the board, including the important work to negotiate a successor
to the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. We believe that we can
pursue our interests through dialogue with Russia in areas such
as non-proliferation, climate change, international economic co-operation
as well as regional conflicts in the Middle East and Afghanistan.
However, we also attach importance to working with the US and
other close partners to maintain our resilience where Russian
interests run counter to our own. The US and the UK support the
right of Russia's neighbours to choose their own path and strategic
alliances. Following Russia's disproportionate military actions
in Georgia last summer we are now working with the US and other
key partners to encourage more constructive Russian participation
in the Geneva talks.
Europe
Ukraine
146. As shown by Vice-President Biden's
recent visit to Kyiv, UK and US goals with respect to Ukraine
continue to be essentially the same: a politically stable and
economically prosperous Ukraine more deeply integrated in European
and Euro-Atlantic structures. To these ends, we both support continued
democratisation and economic reform in Ukraine, using a range
of bilateral, multilateral and public diplomacy instruments. The
UK maintains a regular dialogue about Ukraine with US policy-makers
in Washington, Brussels and Kyiv.
Western Balkans
147. The UK and US share a common strategic interest
in stability in the Balkans region, and have invested considerable
political, military and financial resource in effort to stabilise
the region after the conflicts of the 1990s. This fundamental
alignment of interest remains, even if the scale and nature of
US and UK engagement has evolved, as large UN and NATO military
and civilian stabilisation operations (primarily in Bosnia and
Herzegovina (BiH) and Kosovo) have gradually drawn down, and the
EU has taken on a bigger role. Crucially, the US fully supports
the strategic goal set by the European Union for the region of
eventual EU membership, seeing the associated Stabilisation and
Association Process, and its conditions based approach, as the
best way to embed the political, social and economic reforms needed
to ensure long-term stability. In parallel, the UK and the US
also support the objective of eventual NATO membership for those
countries in the region who aspire to it.
148. We, together with our EU partners, welcome
and value highly continued US engagement in the region and US
support for EU objectives. The new Administration has emphasised
continuing US interest in, and commitment to, the region and has
confirmed its support for the strategic goal of its Euro-Atlantic
integration: a position set out clearly by Vice-President Biden
during his visit to the region in May this year.
Turkey
149. As strong supporters of Turkey's EU
accession and influential allies of Turkey, the US have a significant
role to play in encouraging continued reform in Turkey. As an
EU member the UK can help to ensure that EU and US activity is
complementary. We co-operate with the US on human rights and minority
issues in Turkey more broadly, including in relation to the Kurdish
issue, where increased Turkish-American co-operation in tackling
the PKK has strengthened their counter-terrorism co-operation
across the board.
Cuba
150. The UK and the US share the objective
of a Cuba which respects the basic human, political and economic
rights of all its citizens, though our approaches differ. We welcome
the recent changes in US approach towards Cuba such as the restarting
of bilateral migration talks and the decision to remove all restrictions
on remittances and family visits to the island for Cuban Americans.
The UK, acting with EU Partners, has long preferred a policy of
dialogue and engagement with Cuba. We have each year supported
a Cuba-sponsored resolution against the US embargo at the UN General
Assembly. We have also consistently rejected the US extraterritorial
Helms-Burton legislation which penalises non-US companies doing
business with Cuba.
151. In 2008, the UK took the decision with EU
Partners, to resume the wide-ranging EU-Cuba Strategic Dialogue
(following its suspension after the Cuban crackdown on opposition
groups in 2003). Together with EU partners we will continue to
press the Cuban government for progress on human, political and
economic rights and will review progress under the Strategic Dialogue
on an annual basis.
Colombia
152. The UK and US co-operate closely on
counter-narcotics issues in Colombia at both a policy and operational
level. The Home Office have the UK lead for tackling drugs and
organised crime internationally.
Argentina
153. Both the UK and the US have a shared relationship
with Argentina as a fellow member of G20. Argentina is in favour
of International Financial Institutions (IFI) reform and has worked
with the US on seeking additional funding for the Inter-America
Development Bank. Other areas of close mutual interest are counter-proliferation,
counter-narcotics and money laundering. On the Falkland Islands,
the US is well aware of the UK and Argentine positions, and states
publicly that it views this as a bilateral issue.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
154. The special relationship between the
UK and United States is based on strong historical and cultural
ties deriving from our shared values, and close links across a
wide spectrum of interests, including economic issues, a strong
trading relationship and close co-operation of foreign policy
issues. The relationship continues to thrive, notwithstanding
occasional disagreementsand indeed the manner in which
such disagreements can be aired with the US in a full and frank
manner further underscores the depth and strength of the relationship.
This memorandum sets out many of the areas in which the UK and
US work together as a matter both of long standing experience
and necessity. However, it cannot hope to capture the full range
of exchanges and debate.
155. The FCO welcomes the Committee's continuing
interest in the UK-US bilateral relationship and looks forward
to its Report.
25 September 2009
1 Letter from President Obama to the Secretary General
of NATO and the Members of the North Atlantic Council, 20 January
2009-http://nato.usmission.gov/dossier/Obama_NATO_Letter.asp Back
2
Ambassador Ivo H. Daalder, Permanent Representative of the United
States to NATO, Transatlantic Forum, Berlin, 1 July 2009-http://nato.usmission.gov/Speeches/Daalder_FA_Berlin070109.asp Back
3
Not printed. Back
4
General David Petraeus, 18 September 2007. Back
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