Memorandum submitted by Tim Kruger (GEO
07)
Draft principles for the conduct of geoengineering
research.
SUMMARY
1. In this memorandum, we present a set
of draft principles for the conduct of geoengineering research,
which we suggest as a framework to act as a starting point for
the collaborative development of international regulation.
2. We lay out five key principles by which
we believe geoengineering research should be guided:
Geoengineering to be regulated as a public
good.
Public participation in geoengineering
decision-making.
Disclosure of geoengineering research
and open publication of results.
Independent assessment of impacts.
Governance before deployment.
3. We believe that geoengineering needs
to be regulated and that there is a need to engage more widely
internationally to ensure that any such regulation has broad legitimacy.
ABOUT THE
AUTHORS
4.
Steve Rayner is Professor of Science
and Civilisation and Director of the Institute of Science, Innovation
and Society at the Said Business School, University of Oxford.
His expertise is in the relationship between science and society
and he was a member of the Royal Society's working group on geoengineering.
Catherine Redgwell is Professor of International
Law at University College London. Her expertise is in the fields
of international energy law and international environmental law
and she was also a member of the Royal Society's working group
on geoengineering.
Julian Savulescu is Professor of Practical
Ethics and Director of the Uehiro Centre, University of Oxford.
His expertise is in the fields of genetic ethics and medical ethics.
Nick Pidgeon is Professor of Psychology
at Cardiff University. His expertise is in the field of riskits
perception, communication and managementand public engagement
with science and technology.
Tim Kruger is Director of the Oxford
Geoengineering Institute. His expertise is in the technical aspects
of geoengineering, specifically a process that involves reducing
atmospheric carbon dioxide by enhancing the capacity of the ocean
to act as a carbon sink.
BACKGROUND
5. If the international community fails
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions sufficiently to prevent catastrophic
climate change it may become necessary to resort to techniques
involving deliberate large-scale intervention in the Earth's climate
systemgeoengineering. Geoengineering techniques may be
divided into two categories: Carbon Dioxide Removal techniques
which remove CO2 from the atmosphere; and Solar Radiation
Management techniques which reflect a small percentage of the
sun's light and heat back into space. There are major differences
between these two categories in terms of their objectives, impacts,
and timescale. Such techniques must be seen not as an alternative
to conventional mitigation techniques, but rather as an additional
option to which recourse may be had in the event mitigation alone
does not avert climate change on a catastrophic scale.
6. Increasingly it is apparent that some
geoengineering techniques may be technically possible, though
with major uncertainties regarding their effectiveness, cost and
socio-economic and environmental impacts. It is imperative that
governance structures are in place to guide research in the short
term and to ensure that any decisions taken ultimately with respect
to deployment occur within an appropriate governance framework.
Transparency in decision-making, public participation, and open
publication of research results are key elements of such a framework,
designed to ensure maximum public engagement with and confidence
in the regulation of geoengineering research. Alone or in combination,
many of these principles are already applied in the regulation
of hazardous substances and activities such as the transboundary
movement of hazardous wastes and pesticides, radioactive substances
and GMOs.
7. Accordingly, the following principles
are suggested as a framework to guide research into geoengineering
techniques.
DRAFT PRINCIPLES
FOR THE
CONDUCT OF
GEOENGINEERING RESEARCH
Preamble
8. Recognising the fundamental importance
of mitigation and adaptation in combating climate change and its
adverse effects;
9. Acknowledging nonetheless that
if, in the near future, the international community has failed
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and urgent action is needed
to prevent catastrophic climate change then it may be necessary
to resort to techniques involving deliberate large-scale intervention
in the Earth's climate system ("geoengineering");
10. Ensuring that, in the event
such resort is necessary, potential geoengineering techniques
have been thoroughly investigated to determine, which, if any,
techniques will be effective in addressing the issue of climate
change without producing unacceptable environmental and socio-economic
impacts;
11. Recognising that there are a
variety of proposed geoengineering techniques which differ both
in what they are trying to achieve (Solar Radiation Management
or Carbon Dioxide Removal) and how they are trying to achieve
it (engineered solutions or interventions in ecosystems) so that
each must be assessed on its own terms, rather than applying a
one-size fits all governance approach;
12. Noting that there is no empirical
evidence to suggest researching geoengineering techniques will
undermine climate change mitigation efforts;
13. Emphasizing the importance of
proceeding cautiously with responsible research so as to assess
the potential advantages and disadvantages of proposed geoengineering
techniques, recognizing that failure to do so will not reduce
the probability that such techniques may be resorted to, but will
mean that such resort will take place in the absence of a sufficient
evidence base on which to determine which techniques carry the
least risk;
14. Stressing that research into
geoengineering techniques does not lead inevitably to deployment,
and that principles to govern research may need to be adapted
to guide decisions regarding deployment, if any;
15. Recognising that the regulation
of geoengineering research by existing national, regional and
international laws and regulations may be sufficient, but that
governance gaps may emerge requiring the creation of new rules
and institutions;
16. Propose the following principles
to guide research into geoengineering techniques:
17. Principle 1: Geoengineering to be regulated
as a public good.
While the involvement of the private sector
in the delivery of a geoengineering technique should not be prohibited,
and may indeed be encouraged to ensure that deployment of a suitable
technique can be effected in a timely and efficient manner, regulation
of such techniques should be undertaken in the public interest
by the appropriate bodies at the state and/or international levels.
18. Principle 2: Public participation in geoengineering
decision-making
Wherever possible, those conducting geoengineering
research should be required to notify, consult, and ideally obtain
the prior informed consent of, those affected by the research
activities. The identity of affected parties will be dependent
on the specific technique which is being researchedfor
example, a technique which captures carbon dioxide from the air
and geologically sequesters it within the territory of a single
state will likely require consultation and agreement only at the
national or local level, while a technique which involves changing
the albedo of the planet by injecting aerosols into the stratosphere
will likely require global agreement.
19. Principle 3: Disclosure of geoengineering
research and open publication of results
There should be complete disclosure of research
plans and open publication of results in order to facilitate better
understanding of the risks and to reassure the public as to the
integrity of the process. It is essential that the results of
all research, including negative results, be made publicly available.
20. Principle 4: Independent assessment of impacts
An assessment of the impacts of geoengineering
research should be conducted by a body independent of those undertaking
the research; where techniques are likely to have transboundary
impact, such assessment should be carried out through the appropriate
regional and/or international bodies. Assessments should address
both the environmental and socio-economic impacts of research,
including mitigating the risks of lock-in to particular technologies
or vested interests.
21. Principle 5: Governance before deployment
Any decisions with respect to deployment should
only be taken with robust governance structures already in place,
using existing rules and institutions wherever possible.
Professor Steve Rayner
(University of Oxford)
Professor Catherine Redgwell
(University College London)
Professor Julian Savulescu
(University of Oxford)
Professor Nick Pidgeon
(Cardiff University)
Mr Tim Kruger
(Oxford Geoengineering Institute)
December 2009
|