Energy and Climate Change CommitteeWritten evidence submitted by Natasha Barker Bradshaw and Professor Graham Daborn (SEV67)
The Bay of Fundy, Canada—lessons learned for tidal power development
What lessons can be learned from the successful development of La Rance tidal barrage in France and other tidal power projects?
Executive Summary
The existence of the La Rance tidal barrage may prove that the tidal power technology is viable in itself, but not that it has a viable future in the Severn Estuary. The implications of impounding the Severn Estuary are at a scale that is not comparable with La Rance to inform decision-making here. More relevant comparisons should be drawn from experience in the Bay of Fundy, Canada, which has the highest tidal range in the world. This paper highlights some lessons that can be learnt from the assessment of tidal power potential from the Bay of Fundy where a small tidal barrage has been operating since 1984, but where further or larger tidal barrages are no longer considered viable—due to the outcomes of hydrodynamic modelling, experience from other dams/causeways, community engagement and co-ordinated research. The Canadians have moved on to more benign and reversible technologies.
Content in this paper is also relevant to the questions:
What risks and opportunities could it pose with regard to flooding in the Severn Estuary?
What risks and opportunities could it pose to wildlife and habitat in the Severn Estuary?
How does the company plan to engage and consult the community in the development of the project?
Are there any other proposals for tidal projects in the Severn Estuary currently under consideration?
1. La Rance compared to the Severn
KEY POINT: Barrage technology has not been proven in a large dynamic tidal environment such as the Severn Estuary.
1.1 The 240 MW La Rance barrage, is around 20 times smaller than an 8,640 MW Severn scheme. It is barely half a mile long, compared to nearly 10 miles, impounds just nine rather than 185 square miles, and generates around 0.64 TWh per year, less than 4% of what the Severn barrage would. The ecology, the geography, and the scheme design itself are all different between La Rance and the Severn and comparisons are of limited relevance (FoE, 2007).
1.2 Claims from La Rance that biodiversity may increase (e.g. Kirby, 2006) are probably only valid because habitat diversity has increased (and not necessarily productivity). By comparison, the very high productivity of the Upper Bay of Fundy is related to the highly dynamic behaviour of the sediments and the low biodiversity that is found there. Changes to the Severn Estuary could cause loss of species that are particularly well adapted to the special environmental conditions: the fact that other species may establish themselves doesn’t compensate for that loss.
1.3 Whilst the technology for creating electricity from turbines in a tidal environment has been demonstrated, this does not mean that a tidal barrage across the Severn Estuary is viable. Comparison with more similar tidal environments—in terms of scale and silt concentration, such as the Bay of Fundy—are more relevant. Comparison with the Bay of Fundy illustrates the substantial risks associated with the construction and operation of a large tidal barrage in the Severn Estuary.
2. Annapolis Royal Tidal Barrage, Canada
KEY POINT: Annapolis Royal Tidal Power plant was a pilot scheme for larger tidal barrage proposals in the upper Bay of Fundy during the 1980s. It has not led to further consideration of larger tidal barrage options.
2.1 The Annapolis Royal tidal barrage in Nova Scotia has been operating since 1984 on a pre-existing causeway across a tributary river into the outer Bay of Fundy. It’s purpose was to evaluate the performance of a single large diameter (7.6m) straight flow (straflow) turbine of the kind that might be used in a larger Fundy scheme. The turbine generates electricity for six hours during ebb tide and is connected to the Nova Scotia Power Grid System. The 18MW plant (smaller than La Rance) produces enough electricity to power about 6,000 homes.
2.2 There have been several problems associated with the Annapolis Royal tidal scheme; fish mortality, erosion problems downstream and the health of the river upstream. The detrimental effects on fish populations have been long term.
2.3 The Annapolis tidal barrage is situated on a tributary river which flows into the outer Bay of Fundy. The silt concentration in this outer area of the Bay of Fundy is different and much less than that of the upper Bay of Fundy, where there is a higher tidal range and higher silt concentration.
2.4 As with La Rance, there is therefore limited opportunity to compare this small scheme to a larger scheme as it operates in a less dynamic estuarine environment. It was also realised that it was not feasible to scale-up the effects of a small single turbine installation to a larger tidal barrage.
The Bay of Fundy
Source of basemap: Dr Danika van Proosdij, St Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
The causeway across the Annapolis with the tidal power plant; upstream (left) and downstream (right).
3. Larger Fundy Barrage Options
KEY POINT: The predicted impacts of a larger tidal barrage in Fundy were shown to substantially change the tidal regime with largely unpredictable consequences.
3.1 The potential for generating energy from the Fundy tides was first suggested in 1912. Over the next 50 years there were sporadic and unsuccessful attempts at development.
3.2 The 1960s saw increasing investigations, with the Atlantic Tidal Power Programming Board making the first examination of the tidal resource as a whole and identifying the most promising sites for tidal barrages (Conley & Daborn in Energy Options for Atlantic Canada, 1983).
3.3 In the late 1970s, improvements in technology, understanding of the resource and the increasing price of fuel, led to designs for two sites that appeared to be economically feasible.
3.4 The greatest potential was shown by the Minas Basin-Cobequid Bay barrage option in the upper Bay of Fundy (site B9 on the diagram). Capacities of 4000–5300 MW were estimated to give an annual energy output of 14000–20000 GWh. It was envisaged that the B9 site would contain 128 turbines in an eight km (five mile) barrage and impound more than 300km2 (115 square miles) of tidal water in Cobequid Bay in the upper part of the Minas Basin. This is smaller but more comparable to the Severn Estuary.
Source of base map: Dr Danika van Proosdij, St Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
The upper Bay of Fundy—Minas Basin—showing the approximate location of the preferred tidal barrage site B9.
Minas Basin from Economy Hill looking towards Burntcoat Head, site of the highest recorded tides in the world and the most favoured location for a tidal barrage in the 1980s.
3.5 Investigations during this time illustrated significant potential impacts of a barrage, particularly in relation to changing the tidal regime. Hydrodynamic numerical modelling indicated that the construction of a barrage at site B9 in the Minas Basin was estimated to cause a 13cm rise in tidal amplitude in Boston, New England (USA), more than 600km away.
3.6 Whilst no environmental assessment was carried out at that time, a considerable amount of research was undertaken. It was realised that large gaps existed in the basic knowledge necessary to predict the environmental consequences of a tidal project. Many individuals and agencies therefore undertook research co-ordinated by the Fundy Environmental Studies Committee to increase understanding, so that the impacts could be better predicted. The conclusions from this co-ordinated research included, for example:
Removal of energy from the system will modify the physical oceanographic system of the Bay of Fundy-Gulf of Maine-Georges Bank (FMG) system, with unknown consequences on biological resources for North America, from the Arctic to the tropics.
Altering tidal current patterns leading to changes in the location of mudflats and saltmarsh; questions remaining on the length of time they would take to stabilise and recover biological productivity.
Tidal upwelling in the important fish, seabird and marine mammal feeding grounds in the outer part of the Bay which is determined by the tidal range.
3.7 Following this work, the emphasis on tidal renewables moved towards tidal in-stream energy devices which carry much less risk. The benefits (EPRI, 2006) were reported as:
utilisation of an abundant, cleaner & relatively pollution free resource;
creation of jobs, economic development and improved energy self-sufficiency;
relatively fewer aesthetic impacts compared to other energy options.
3.8 In 2006, the government of Nova Scotia established a committee on renewable energy, with particular attention being paid to possible demonstration sites for tidal (sub-sea) turbines. This led to the Fundy Strategic Environmental Assessment for Marine Renewable Energy in the Bay of Fundy (OEER, 2008) with a background report (Jacques Whitford, 2008) and response (Nova Scotia Dept of Energy, 2009).
3.9 Feasibility studies progressed during 2007–08 did not include further assessment of tidal barrage options due to the perceived impacts and risks. The Nova Scotia Marine Renewable Energy Strategy (May 2012) focused on in-stream tidal generation, with the door left open for lagoons or shore-based impoundments, but not for barrage-based developments. This contrasts significantly to the work of the UK’s Sustainable Development Commission (2007) which focused only on a Severn Barrage, followed by Feasibility Studies by the Dept of Energy & Climate Change (2010) which mainly considered tidal barrages and lagoons.
4. Siltation, flooding and erosion risks
KEY POINT: Tidal causeways/dams across tributaries to the Bay of Fundy illustrate the significant alteration of river systems with rapid, unpredictable consequences and no foreseeable return to a state of dynamic equilibrium.
4.1 Tidal causeways/dams and barrages built for flood/coastal defence or infrastructure purposes across tributary rivers into the Bay of Fundy have caused significant and unpredictable siltation, flooding and erosion. Impacts on the river systems have been significant, particularly in relation to the changes to siltation patterns. This has resulted in a higher perception of the risks associated with larger tidal barrages and any future large tidal power scheme. There has been relatively little experience of the siltation caused by dams/causeways around the Severn Estuary because bridges have been built instead (e.g. across the R. Usk in Newport, and across the R. Avon in Bristol) therefore we have less direct experience of the impact on silt deposition, erosion and flooding risks . This appears to have been a determining factor in limiting further consideration of a large tidal barrage for renewable energy in Canada, but it is receiving less profile in the UK.
4.2 River Avon Causeway (Windsor)—Upper Bay of Fundy
Rapid accumulation of mudflats seaward of the causeway, grew to 6–8m above the original sand bar, with nothing growing on them for over two decades after the causeway was constructed. Ecosystem responses to modifications of these macrotidal estuaries take decades to develop, so the environmental effects are prolonged. These changes are continuing (albeit at a slower rate) some 40 years after the construction. Discussions about replacing the causeway with a bridge concluded that a) it was too expensive; b) it opened up large areas that would be vulnerable to regular flooding (unless even more expensive coastal protection was provided) to deal with post-causeway and future sea level rise; and c) the ecosystem of the estuary will never return to its former state.
4.3 Petitcodiac River Causeway (Moncton)—Upper Bay of Fundy
A similar scenario has been experienced on the Petitcodiac River, where a causeway was built in 1968 to prevent agricultural flooding and improve access to the town of Moncton. Whilst the causeway was being built the engineers saw the immediate build-up of silt on the downstream side. An estimated 10 million cubic metres of silt was deposited in the 4.7 km of river downstream from the causeway in the first three years following construction. The causeway restricted the movement of fish and reduced the region’s salmon catches by 82% Water quality deteriorated, and the tidal bore (a popular tourist attraction) was eliminated. In 2003, the Petitcodiac River was designated as the most endangered river in Canada because of these problems. The dynamic equilibrium of the river and estuary system did not appear to be stabilising, with less predictable flood risk consequences. It was considered better to try and revert back toward the estuary system prior to construction of the causeway over four decades earlier. In 2010, the causeway’s gates were therefore opened permanently as part of a $68 million three-phase project designed to restore the estuary, to be completed by 2015.
http://www.tripsister.com/petitcodiac-river-causeway-gates-opening/#
The road causeway over the R. Petitcodiac at Moncton led to significant build-up of mud flats & salt marsh. In 2010, 42 years after construction of the causeway, gates have been opened to try and restore the original tidal flow upstream.
4.4 In both the Avon and Petitcodiac causeway cases, new large mudflats developed progressively for many years at rates so great that they did not consolidate. They remained so fluid that the typical fauna of bivalves, amphipods and polychaetes was established only decades later.
4.5 There is much public agitation for removing some of the smaller tidal barriers around Fundy, and, following the successful legal challenges that led to the partial opening of the Petitcodiac Causeway, there is discussion about removing the Avon causeway as well.
4.6 These examples show that construction of a tidal barrage is likely to require a very long period for the re-establishment of habitats. The consequences could be severe for shorebirds and fish but also carry substantial risks to society & the economy, with less predictable patterns of erosion & silt deposition affecting coastal & flood protection.
4.7 Other major rivers in the world such as the Columbia (USA), Snake (USA), Mississippi (USA), Colorado (USA) and Nile (Egypt) provide stark examples of major downstream effects of barriers ie dams, one or more, on riverine and estuarine systems. Effects have been measured on water quality, the fate of contaminants, fish migration, sediment transport, nutrient transport and the size and condition of their deltas (highly productive biologically and reduced significantly in size), as well as on human health. Ecological effects are extensive and considered largely irreversible (Wells, 1999).
4.8 These results make it worthwhile to compare further the conditions in the Bay of Fundy (and elsewhere) with those in the Severn Estuary. Published studies are available (see Reference list) and there are studies conducted by the Department of Fisheries & Oceans Canada on the River Pedicodiac and St. Mary’s University and Acadia University on the River Avon.
5. Community Engagement in Tidal Power Options for Fundy
KEY POINT: The Fundy Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) shows how engaging and consulting the community as an inherent aspect of the decision-making process over tidal power options is more likely to lead to outcomes which are sustainable for society, economy and the environment.
5.1 In spring 2007, the Canadians undertook a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) focusing on tidal energy development in the Bay of Fundy. Community input was through forums, workshops, written submissions, an extensive website, monthly newsletter, 24-person stakeholder roundtable and funding for community-based participation and research initiatives.
5.2 Recommendations included the development of a collaborative research program for marine renewable energy development to address:
immediate needs related to demonstration projects;
longer term requirements for commercial development;
the understanding, prediction, mitigation and monitoring of far-field and cumulative effects;
the eventual determination of ecosystem carrying capacity limits.
The priority research areas were informed by workshops that brought together local and national experts to inform the focus on hydrodynamic modelling.
5.3 Recommendations to guide a strategic approach to the development of marine renewable energy included ten sustainability principles intended to ensure that marine renewable energy developments respect ecological integrity and make positive contributions to the social, economic and cultural well-being of Nova Scotia. They included:
Commercial application of marine renewable energy developments should go ahead only when a proponent can demonstrate that there will be no significant adverse effects on the fundamental hydrodynamic processes of the Bay of Fundy tidal regime (energy flow, erosion, sediment transportation and deposition) or on biological processes and resources.
Until near and far-field effects of marine renewable energy are well understood and deemed to be acceptable, development should take place incrementally, supported by an effective and transparent research and monitoring program. Installations should be removable, and clear thresholds should be established to indicate when removal would be required.
Research, monitoring and decision making related to marine renewable energy should be carried out in an open and transparent manner. The public should have access to all environmental & resource assessment information, respecting the need to keep certain commercial information confidential. Requests by proponents to keep information confidential should undergo stringent review.
5.4 The SEA recommended proceeding in a cautious and incremental manner, beginning with a demonstration program of technologies suitable for application at different scales and locations. The program should initiate longer term research needed to predict cumulative and far-field effects in the commercial phase.
5.5 Demonstration projects and any future commercial developments should be designed to be removable, and effects thresholds should be established to determine under what circumstances devices should be taken out of the water.
5.6 Stakeholders felt that sustainability was the key issue with respect to the possible development of tidal energy in the Bay of Fundy where:
the development of marine renewable energy must not be allowed to significantly affect the complex biophysical systems in the Bay of Fundy or the livelihoods that depend on harvesting renewable resources from the Bay;
Marine renewable energy development should not be permitted to outpace our understanding of its effects (short and long term, near and far-field) and our ability to mitigate them. A cautious approach is essential.
5.7 The Canadians are forging ahead to test and refine tidal in-stream energy devices to create a commercially viable technology appropriate to the Fundy environment. They have partnered with Marine Current Turbines Ltd. (MCT)—based in Bristol, UK—to test its technology in the Bay of Fundy. This has the potential to provide economic impacts in the Atlantic region and position Canada as a world leader in marine renewable energy.
Conclusion
The Bay of Fundy and Severn Estuary are two sites with the highest tidal ranges in the world. At a similar time to the last in-depth studies on the Severn Estuary (1970s and 1980s) there was significant investigation into the economic, environmental and technical feasibility of barrage options for the Bay of Fundy. This led to the building of a trial tidal generating station in a pre-existing causeway across the Annapolis River in Nova Scotia. It provided a valuable platform for research on environmental implications of barrage-based tidal power, especially for fish passage, seawater-groundwater interactions, shoreline erosion, etc. over the past 25 years.
Investigations into the feasibility of a larger tidal generating station in the upper Bay of Fundy, comparable to a Severn Barrage, were carried out in the 1980s. The significant impact predicted from the most favoured location for a larger barrage scheme, were major changes to the tidal regime leading to unpredictable consequences, carrying too much risk.
Experience from the Bay of Fundy on the response of estuaries to the construction of causeways and dams, has raised awareness of the unpredictable consequences where there are high silt concentrations.
The Bay of Fundy represents a much better analogue for the Severn Estuary than does La Rance. In particular, it would be worthwhile to share knowledge of sediment studies, the creation of new habitat and effects on flood & coastal erosion risk management.
This paper illustrates why we must recognise the limitations of comparisons to La Rance tidal barrage: the same technology may not be viable in the larger dynamic Severn environment.
There should be greater evaluation of the impacts of larger scale impoundments in other more similar tidal environments, particularly the scale of change to intertidal sediment regimes and their consequences. Evidence from the Bay of Fundy illustrates the risks of large scale schemes and benefits of progressing tidal technology in a more incremental manner.
The continued focus on a Severn Barrage is distracting from the incentive to identify other potentially more sustainable and truly renewable tidal energy devices for the Severn. Whilst taking a low-risk approach, the Canadians are pioneering commercially viable tidal stream generation utilising technology developed in the UK.
Recommendations
1. Put measures in place to better co-ordinate and support ongoing scientific research, particularly with regard to hydrodynamic modelling.
2. Investigate thoroughly lessons that can be learnt from other (potential) tidal barrage locations including (but not limited to) those in China (Jiangxia plant) and North Korea (Sihwa tidal generating station), dams in Netherlands (Eastern Scheldt) and the Bay of Fundy, Canada.
3. Increase investment in non-barrage tidal power technology that could work more in harmony with the natural dynamics of the Severn Estuary.
About the Authors
This paper is based on research undertaken for a Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Fellowship including a study visit to the Bay of Fundy:
Barker, Natasha (2008) Managing Tidal Change: Phase 1 Project Report: Bay of Fundy, Canada.
Natasha Barker Bradshaw has worked in the management and planning of coastal environments for the past twenty years. This has included ten years managing Estuary Partnership initiatives in South-West England and South Wales, co-ordinating community, government and private sector interests to promote sustainable resource use. Whilst working for the Severn Estuary Partnership (based at Cardiff University), Natasha was awarded a Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Travelling Fellowship to study estuaries with the highest tidal ranges in the world—including the Bay of Fundy. This paper does not reflect the views of any organisation Natasha works or has worked for.
Graham Daborn is Professor Emeritus at Acadia University. A graduate of the University of Keele (UK) and the University of Alberta, he was the founding Director of the Acadia Centre for Estuarine Research (ACER), which was established in 1985 to focus attention on estuarine environments, such as the Bay of Fundy. ACER research studies have covered a wide range of topics in estuarine research, and have been carried out in the Canadian Arctic, Europe (Humber Estuary, Venice Lagoon), South America and New Zealand. Most of the research has dealt with the effects of human modifications of estuaries and coastal waters, such as the construction of causeways, the dredging of harbours, the addition of nutrients or contaminants, watershed management issues, and tidal power. From 2004 to 2007 Daborn was the first Director of the Academy for the Environment at Acadia University. From 1996–2004 he chaired the Bay of Fundy Ecosystem Partnership, a virtual institute concerned with increasing cooperation between governments, communities, resource users and industries in development of sustainable futures for the communities and resources of the Bay of Fundy. His current activities relate mostly to the environmental implications of generating renewable energy from the marine environment, especially from tidal currents in the Bay of Fundy, and the potential development of marine protected areas in the Bay of Fundy.
A list of Graham Daborns’ references selected to be of most relevance to this submission:
Campbell, L., N. Clark, G. Daborn, J. Goss-Custard, A. Gray, M. Hill, S. Lockwood, S. McGrorty, R. Mitchell, S. Muirhead, J. Pethick, P. Radford, R. Uncles, J. West. 1992. The Ecological Impact of Estuarine Barrages. Edited by A. Gray. British Ecological Society, Ecological Issues No. 3. 43 pp.
Daborn, G.R. (Ed.) 1977. Fundy Tidal Power and the Environment. Publication No. 28. Acadia University Institute. iv + 304 pp.
Conley, M.W. and G. R. Daborn (Eds). 1983. Energy Options for Atlantic Canada. Formac Publishing Co. and Acadia University Institute. 157 pp.
Daborn, G. R. (Ed.) 1986. Effects of Increases in Sea Level and Tidal Range on the Bay of Fundy—Gulf of Maine System. Publication No. 1. Acadia Centre for Estuarine Research. vii + 133 pp.
Daborn, G.R. 1982. Environmental implications of Fundy tidal power. Proc. Conference on Hydro and Tidal Power Options for Atlantic Canada. Publ. No. 30. Acadia University Institute. 16 pp.
Amos, C., M. Brylinsky, H. Christian and G.R. Daborn. 1994. Steps toward a model of cohesive sediment behaviour. In Coastal Zone Canada ’94 : Cooperation in the Coastal Zone. P.J. Wells & P. Ricketts (Eds.) Vol. 4:
Daborn, G.R. and A.M. Redden. 2009. A century of tidal power research in the Bay of Fundy, Canada, and the enabling role of research networks. J. Ocean Technology IV (4): 1–5.
Daborn, G.R., A.M. Redden and R.S. Gregory. 1982. Ecological studies of the Annapolis Estuary, 1981–82. Publ. No. 29, Acadia University Institute. 80 pp.
Daborn, G.R. 1982. Environmental implications of Fundy tidal power. Publ. No. 30, Acadia University Institute. 16 pp.
Daborn, G.R. 1984. Environmental considerations of tidal power. In Conley, M. and G.R. Daborn (Eds). Energy Options for Atlantic Canada. Formac Press and Acadia University Institute. Pp. 107–118.
Daborn, G.R. 2001. The Derby Tidal Power Project: An examination of the 1997 Consultative Environmental Review for Environmental Effects that might necessitate abandonment of the Project. 10 pp.
Daborn, G.R., M. Brylinsky and D. Van Proosdij. 2002. Environmental Implications of Expanding the Windsor Causeway, NS. ACER Report No. 69. 108 pp.
Daborn, G.R., and M. Brylinsky. 2004. Fish Population Studies of the Avon Estuary, Pesaquid Lake and Lower Avon River, 2003. ACER Report No. 79. 145 pp.
Isaacman, L., G.R. Daborn and A.M. Redden. 2012. A framework for environmental risk assessment and decision-making for tidal energy development in Canada. Final Report to Fisheries and Oceans Canada and Nova Scotia Department of Energy. 50 pp.
Other References
EPRI (2006) Electric Power Research Institute. North America Tidal In-Stream Energy Conversion Technology Feasibility Study. Roger Bedard, Ocean Energy Leader, EPRI, 1 May 2006.
Friends of the Earth (FoE, 2007) The Severn Barrage September 2007.
Hawboldt, Stephen (2006) Tidal Power: A green dream? Gulf of Maine Times, Volume 10, Number 12.
Kirby, R. (2006) Links Between Environmental Consequences of La Rance and Severn Tidal Power.
Barrages.https://ice.adobeconnect.com/_a884535394/p45039984/?launcher=false&fcsContent=true&pbMode=normal
Nova Scotia Dept of Energy (2009) Bay of Fundy Tidal Energy—A response to the Strategic Environmental Assessment.
Nova Scotia Dept of Energy (2012) Marine Renewable Energy Strategy.
OEER (2008) Bay of Fundy Tidal Energy Strategic Environmental Assessment Final Report. Prepared by the OEER Association for the Nova Scotia Department of Energy. Submitted April 2008. Final Report 92pp.
http://www.gov.ns.ca/energy/resources/EM/tidal/Tidal-SEA-Report-screen.pdf
Pethick, J.S, Morris, R K A, Evans, D H (2009) Nature conservation implications of a Severn tidal barrage—A preliminary assessment of geomorphological change. Journal for Nature Conservation Vol 17, Issue 4, December 2009 pp183–198.
Van Proosdij & Bambrick (2006) Spatial and Temporal Variations in the Intertidal Geomorphology of the Avon River Estuary.
Wells, P (1999) Environmental Impacts of Barriers on Rivers Entering the Bay of Fundy: Report of an ad hoc Environment Canada Working Group. Atlantic Region 1999, Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Conservation Branch. Technical Report Series Number 334.
Jacques Whitford (2008) Background Report for the Fundy Tidal Energy Strategic Environmental Assessment. 291 pp.
Website links sourced for this research:
Further information about the demonstration site under development: http://www.gov.ns.ca/energy/renewables/public-education/tidal.asp
http://www.gov.ns.ca/energy/renewables/current-activity/tidal.asp
Nova Scotia government news: http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/story/2012/09/12/ns-fundy-tidal-power.html
Acadia University research: http://acer.acadiau.ca/FERN.html
Fundy Ocean Research Centre for Energy FORCE http://fundyforce.ca/
Nova Scotia Renewable Energy Plan http://nsrenewables.ca/about-plan
Nova Scotia Tidal In-Stream Energy Conversion (TISEC): Survey and Characterization of Potential Project Sites http://www.epri.com/oceanenergy/streamenergy.html#reports
http://www.gov.ns.ca/energy/renewables/current-activity/tidal.asp
http://www.gov.ns.ca/energy/resources/EM/tidal/Tidal-SEA-Report-screen.pdf
http://www.gov.ns.ca/energy/renewables/public-education/tidal.asp
River Petitcodiac: http://www.petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=home&hl=en_US
December 2012