1 Background
1. In September 2013 the Deputy Prime
Minister announced plans to introduce a mandatory five pence charge
for single-use plastic carrier bags in England from Autumn 2015.[1]
The provision for such a charge had been included in the Climate
Change Act 2008.[2] Wales
and Northern Ireland have already introduced a charge on single-use
bags, and Scotland plans to introduce a charge in 2014.[3]
The Republic of Ireland introduced a charge in 2002.[4]
2. In November 2013 the Government
launched a consultation on the proposals.[5]
The Government has indicated that it will not replicate the Welsh
scheme, which has reduced bag use by 76% (Figure 1), but intends
instead to introduce a series of exemptions beyond those applied
in Wales. The consultation stated that "some decisions have
already been made, such as the size of the charge (5p) and what
it applies to (single-use plastic bags)"[6]
and that it will "not include re-usable bags for life
or paper bags. Nor will it apply to organisations with fewer than
250 employees".[7]
The consultation additionally proposes an exemption for biodegradable
bags.[8]
3. Over the past decade, many governments
have taken initiatives to reduce the sale or use of disposable
plastic bags. These include bans, the use of mandatory pricing
and voluntary measures.[9]
In Denmark, where plastic bags are taxed, use of thin plastic
bags has dropped to an estimated four bags per person each year.[10]
In contrast people in England use an average of 133 bags a year,[11]
whilst use in Wales has fallen to 22 per person.[12]
4. In England, the Government has until
now relied on voluntary schemes to try to reduce bag use. Supermarkets
gave out 7.1 billion single-use plastic carrier bags in 2012,[13]
and high street retailers a further 1.5 billion.[14]
However, although voluntary measures initially reduced the number
of bags taken by shoppers,[15]
the number of plastic bags used in England increased by 4% last
year.[16] Following the
introduction of a charge use has fallen by 76% in Wales in the
same period. Figure 1 Number
of single-use carrier bags issued in supermarkets
| Nation
| 2010
| 2011
| 2012
| % change
(2011-2012)
|
| England |
6.29bn | 6.77bn
| 7.06bn |
+4% |
| Wales |
0.35bn | 0.27bn
| 0.07bn |
-76%* |
* On 1 October 2011 Wales introduced
a charge for single use carrier bags. The data for 2012 represents
the first full calendar year of reporting under that charge.
Source: WRAP
5. The Republic of Ireland was the first
country in the world to implement a minimum charge through its
plastic bag tax in 2002. This was initially set at 15 cent (12p[17])
per bag, but was increased to 22 cent (18p) in 2007. Bag use in
the Republic of Ireland has fallen by 90%.[18]
Revenue from the tax goes into a dedicated environment fund. Italy
introduced a law prohibiting the distribution of single-use plastic
bags in 2011, although an exemption was later allowed for compostable
bags. The UK Government has opposed the Italian ban, considering
it illegal under the European Packaging Directive and requiring
a full derogation to the single market for all 'light-weight bags'[19]
(although we heard that the European Commission has not chosen
to intervene on the Italian ban).[20]
6. In November 2013, the European Commission
adopted a proposal that requires Member States to reduce their
use of lightweight plastic carrier bags. The proposal amends the
Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive to encourage states to
adopt measures to reduce the consumption of thin plastic carrier
bags. It would allow taxing or banning plastic bags, as long as
these measures do not impose significant restrictions in the internal
market.[21]
7. Our aim in this inquiry was to examine
the Government's proposals for a carrier bag charge in England.
We took oral evidence from the Welsh Government; a behavioural
psychologist who evaluated the impact of the Welsh scheme; WRAP
(the Government's advisory body on waste); British Retail Consortium;
a member of the 'break the bag habit' litter group (the Campaign
to Protect Rural England); recyclers and industry groups; and
Defra Minister Dan Rogerson MP.
8. In this report we first examine the
aims of the proposed scheme. In Part 2 we examine the whether
the design of the proposed scheme will be effective in changing
shoppers' behaviours to use fewer bags and benefit the environment,
and in Part 3 we examine the case for the exemption from the charge
for biodegradable bags.
Aims of the bag charge
9. The Government expects that the charge
"will reduce the number of plastic bags used in England and
increase their reuse, with an associated reduction in littering"[22].
Its Call for Evidence: Single-Use Plastic Bag Charge for England
notes that:
Discarded plastic bags are an iconic
symbol of waste. They are a very visible form of littering and
can cause injury to marine wildlife. The environmental impact
of plastic bags extends beyond their littering. They consume resources,
including oil, in their creation. Even when disposed of responsibly,
plastic bags can last for long periods of time in landfill sites.[23]
Defra told us that its "main aim
remains to reduce the distribution of plastic bags, and tackle
waste and littering, with reuse and eventual recycling being important
secondary aims."[24]
The Defra Minister also told us:
the main aim originally was around
this issue of littering and the concern that we have all had on
that. Clearly, there is another gain for us in terms of the reduction
in carbon emissions, but the key measure of success will be how
many fewer of these bags are going into circulation.[25]
10. Groups concerned with the environmental
impact of litter, including a 'break the bag habit' group, are
campaigning for the introduction of a charge for all single-use
carrier bags.[26] Marine
Conservation Society, a member of this campaign, told us:
plastic bags are an ubiquitous,
widely dispersed, long-lasting, unsightly and hazardous form of
litter that, whether whole or broken down into micro-particles,
pose a threat to marine wildlife many of which are already endangered
or threatened by human exploitation or activities. [27]
Keep Britain Tidy, which publishes annual
data on litter, told us "in 2012-13 in England 9% of sites
surveyed as part of the Local Environmental Quality Survey for
England had single-use carrier bag litter present. This is a slight
decline from 10% in 2009-10 but shows bags still blight almost
1 in 10 of all places in England".[28]
11. Packaging and Film Association (PAFA)
believed that other types of litter are more significant than
plastic bags.[29] The
most common materials found in the Keep Britain Tidy survey were
smokers' material (82% of locations), confectionery material (68%),
non-alcoholic drinks material (52%) and fast food material (32%),
whilst supermarket bags were found in 3% of survey sites and other
retail bags were found in 6%.[30]
Barry Turner of PAFA told us "by focusing on this area, you
are potentially misleading the general consumer to think that
we are dealing with an issue of far greater significance than
it is."[31] However,
Campaign to Protect Rural England told us that plastic bags have
a greater visual impact than other types of litter:
Single-use bags, and plastic carrier
bags in particular, are a huge litter problem .... They are very
conspicuous in terms of their volume and the fact that they get
blown around.[32]
As part our Well-being inquiry, we heard
that litter also has an impact on people's sense of community
cohesion and trust. Dr David Halpern, of the Cabinet Office's
Behavioural Insights team explained:
Seeing a messy environment—bags
around or whatever—affects how you feel about other people,
and we know that from a number of other studies. It looks like
a rule has been broken because of litter; in fact, is a classic
example. It leads to other kinds of problems. It changes how you
feel about other people. We have already established that social
trust is important. How do you know whether other people can be
trusted? You infer it from the environment.[33]
12. There is evidence that charging
for carrier bags leads to fewer bags being discarded as litter.
In Ireland, the proportion of plastic-bag litter dropped from
5% prior to the introduction of the plastic bag levy to 0.2% in
2004. Academics studying the Irish tax concluded that there had
been an "associated gain in the form of reduced littering
and negative landscape effects".[34]
There is not yet sufficient data to draw firm conclusions in Wales,
but there are some indications that numbers of bags discarded
as litter have fallen. Keep Wales Tidy told us that there has
been a reduction in the proportion of streets where carrier bags
were found since the charge:
In the full survey year prior to
the introduction of the levy, carrier bags were found on an average
of 1.1% of each local authority's streets. Since the introduction
of the levy that figure has dropped to 0.9%. The percentage of
streets littered with carrier bags has reduced in 12 of the 22
local authorities and remained the same in a further four.[35]
13. In 2006, the Environment Agency
commissioned research into the environmental impact of plastic
bags, which concluded that "the environmental impact of plastic
bags is dominated by their resource use and production. Transport,
secondary packaging and end-of-life processing generally have
a minimal influence on their environmental performance".[36]
The study estimated that the bags needed to carry a month's worth
of shopping (82 single-use plastic bags) would be responsible
for carbon emissions equivalent to 1.578kg CO2[37]
— approximately equal to those from travelling 5 miles
in the average petrol car.[38]
In their evidence to our inquiry Defra initially misinterpreted
the Environment Agency figures as the carbon emissions for a single
bag rather than eighty-two. When we pointed this out to Defra,
they confirmed that instead of "permanently taking 1.7 million
to 2.7 million cars off the road", as the Minister told us
on 18 December,[39] the
correct figure is 32,000 to 43,000 cars.[40]
The analysis used by Defra to inform their policy therefore substantially
over-estimated the carbon impact of plastic bags.[41]
However, whilst considerably lower than Defra initially stated,
this impact is still significant and the Government should do
everything to ensure that the policy achieves the greatest reduction
possible.
14. The carbon impact of a carrier bag
is modest, but given the numbers of bags used a large decrease
in use will significantly reduce carbon emissions. The plastic
bag charge will not solve the problems of litter, but offers an
opportunity to reduce the numbers of plastic bags that end up
as litter by encouraging reuse, and potentially the impact of
those in the natural environment.
15. The Government
has multiple aims for the plastic bag charging policy, including
reducing emissions, waste, and litter, but has not adequately
determined their relative priority. Before proceeding it should
have undertaken a structured appraisal of the evidence on the
potential environmental gains associated with each objective and
the extent to which the charge and type of bag would secure these
gains, along with an assessment of their associated risks and
wider impacts. It needs to ensure its analysis is robust and accurate.
1 Defra and Office of Deputy Prime Minister press release
'Plastic bag charge set to benefit the environment' 14 September
2013. Back
2
Climate Change Act 2008, S77; This enables the Government to require
sellers of goods to charge for single-use plastic bags that they
supply to their customers. Back
3
Defra, Single-Use Plastic Bag Charge for England: Call for Evidence,
November 2013, para 5 Back
4
Defra, Single-Use Plastic Bag Charge for England: Call for Evidence,
November 2013, para 33 Back
5
Defra, Single-Use Plastic Bag Charge for England: Call for Evidence,
November 2013 Back
6
Defra, Single-Use Plastic Bag Charge for England: Call for Evidence,
November 2013, para 13 Back
7
Defra, Single-Use Plastic Bag Charge for England: Call for Evidence,
November 2013, para 9 Back
8
Defra, Single-Use Plastic Bag Charge for England: Call for Evidence,
November 2013, para 40-47 Back
9
Dr Wouter Poortinga (BAG 001), para 2 Back
10
European Commission, MEMO/13/945 4 November 2013 Back
11
Wrap's analysis states that usage in England was 11.2/month per
person in 2012. However, this uses 2011 population data. Using
2012 population data (ONS data which gives total population in
England for 2012 as 53,493,700) the total is 132 bags per person.
Back
12
Wrap submission states that people in Wales use 1.8/month: WRAP
(BAG 031) para 11; However, this uses 2011 population data- using
2012 ONS data gives a population of 3,074,100, and usage of 1.9/month
or 23 bags a year- although this is sensitive to rounding. Back
13
http://www.wrap.org.uk/content/wrap-publishes-new-figures-carrier-bag-use Back
14
Defra (BAG 032), para 16 Back
15
In December 2008 seven of Britain's leading supermarkets - represented
by the British Retail Consortium (BRC) - signed up to a voluntary
agreement with the Government to cut the number of carrier bags
distributed by the end of May 2009 by 50% (against 2006 levels).
The target was narrowly missed (the reduction was 48% for the
UK as a whole); Defra, ARCHIVE: Carrier bag waste Last updated
March 2010; WRAP (BAG 031), para 7 Back
16
However, although more bags are being used, as bags have got thinner
the total material used has fallen. In 2012, total carrier bags
weighed 70,400 tonnes in the UK. This compares to 109,800 tonnes
in 2006 and 72,300 tonnes in 2011. These figures represent a reduction
of 36% since the baseline year of 2006; WRAP (BAG 031), para 20 Back
17
All Euro values based on exchange rate at 28/1/2014 source: xe.com
Back
18
Convery, F., McDonnell, S. Ferreira, S. (2007) 'The most popular tax in Europe? Lessons from the Irish plastic bags levy'
Environmental Resource Econ 38:1-11 Back
19
Defra (BAG 032), para 30 Back
20
Qq118-121 Back
21
European Commission Press Release IP/13/1017 4 November 2013;
The Government's proposals for a 5p charge in England are part
of its Waste Prevention Programme which was published in December
2013. This is required under the revised EU Waste Framework Directive
(2008/98/EC). Back
22
Defra, Single-Use Plastic Bag Charge for England: Call for Evidence,
November 2013, para 7 Back
23
Defra, Single-Use Plastic Bag Charge for England: Call for Evidence,
November 2013,para 1 and 2 Back
24
Defra (BAG 032), para 2 Back
25
Q54 Back
26
the Break the Bag Habit coalition includes The Campaign to Protect
Rural England, Keep Britain Tidy, Surfers Against Sewage, Thames
21 and Greener upon Thames; Campaign to Protect Rural England
(BAG 023, para 4 Back
27
Marine Conservation Society (BAG 013), para 1 Back
28
Keep Britain Tidy (BAG 022), para 1 Back
29
Packaging and Films Association (PAFA) (BAG 009, para 3.2 Back
30
Keep Britain Tidy, 'How Clean is England?: The Local Environmental Quality Survey of England 2012/13',
p17 Back
31
Q32 [Barry Turner] Back
32
Q32 [Neil Sinden] Back
33
Oral evidence taken on 15 January 2014 on Well-being, HC59iii
Q141; References: Keizer, Lindenberg, Steg, (2008) 'The Spreading of Disorder'
Science; Cialdini, Goldstein (2004) 'Social influence: compliance and conformity',
Annual Review of Psychology; Krauss, Freedman, Whitcup (1978)
'Field and laboratory studies of littering', Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology. Back
34
Convery, F., McDonnell, S. Ferreira, S. (2007) 'The most popular tax in Europe? Lessons from the Irish plastic bags levy'
Environmental Resource Econ 38:1-11 Back
35
Keep Wales Tidy (BAG 041); They add that "street-data is
likely to significantly understate the extent of littered carrier
bags. This owes to the physical properties of carrier bags which
render them not readily degradable, meaning they persist for long
periods in the environment and are easily transportable by weather,
causing wide dispersal." Back
36
Environment Agency, 'Life cycle assessment of supermarket carrier bags: a review of the bags available in 2006'
Report SC030148 Executive Summary Back
37
Environment Agency, 'Life cycle assessment of supermarket carrier bags: a review of the bags available in 2006'
Report SC030148; This assumes 40% re-use of these bags- without
it the emissions increase to 2.098kg - see table 6.1 p46 and Figure
2 of this report; The number of bags needed for a month's worth
of shopping is the 'reference flow' - see table 3.1 p18; We have
checked that our interpretation is correct with Intertek, the
authors of the report. Back
38
The Carbon Trust state (p4) that an average petrol car emits 0.318827kg
CO2e per mile. Back
39
Q49 [Dan Rogerson]; Footnote 15, para 19 of Defra (BAG 032) indicates
that Defra are using '1.57 kg co2e per bag'. Back
40
After we pointed out their error, Defra provided us with revised
figures (BAG 0049). Our own analysis, suggests that given the
average annual car mileage is 8,200 miles (National Traffic Survey 2012),
the average car produces 2,614kg CO2e/year (see footnote
38). Using a figure of 0.019kg CO2e per bag, a 75%
reduction in bag use (equivalent to 5,295 million bags) would
be equivalent to an annual reduction of 102,025 metric tonnes
CO2e or the equivalent annual emissions of 39,024 cars. Back
41
The draft EC impact assessment does the same- (footnote 12, p14
of Impact Assessment) Back
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