In this Annex we present an analysis of each of the
10 environmental areas. It uses the results of a briefing report
by the National Audit Office, as well as other sources.
GREEN: Satisfactory improvement since 2010.
Emissions and climate change
| AMBER |
Air pollution |
RED |
Biodiversity | RED
|
Forests | AMBER
|
Soils | AMBER
|
Flooding and coastal protection
| RED |
Resource efficiency and waste
| AMBER |
Freshwater environment |
AMBER |
Water availability |
AMBER |
Marine environment |
AMBER |
For each of the 10 areas we identify (i) the current
situation and trends, as well as whether there are (ii) metrics
and targets, and (iii) an understanding of the causal factors
influencing the state of the environment and the policy levers
available.
Emissions and climate change
Current situation and trends
Climate change emissions remain a significant global
danger, as we described in our progress on Carbon Budgets report
in 2013. We noted that "the world is currently on track to
warm by 4°C".[152]
In their recent report on Managing climate risks to well-being
and the economy, the Adaptation Sub-Committee state that
Global average surface temperature has increased
by around 0.8°C since the 1850-1900 baseline used by the
IPCC, with UK average temperatures rising broadly in line with
the global trend. The UK Government, together with others around
the world, considers rises beyond two degrees to bring increasing
risk of dangerous and irreversible impacts. By the end of the
century, a 3.2°C to 5.4°C global rise above the baseline
can be expected based on continuing emissions growth, with further
warming into the next century.[153]
While emissions are still rising globally, however,
they have been falling in the UK. The Climate Change Act 2008
requires Government to reduce the UK's greenhouse gas emissions
by at least 80% by 2050 against a 1990 baseline, and the Government's
carbon budgets, designed to deliver that reduction, have so far
been achieved. WWF told us that "Government reporting on
carbon emissions and carbon budgets is exemplary"[154]
and that "the Climate Change Act was an exemplar".[155]
The Committee on Climate Change calculated that in the UK emissions
rose by 3.5% in 2012,[156]
but in 2013 fell by 2%.[157]
In 2013, 5.2% of our energy was generated from renewables,[158]
towards an EU target for 2020 of 15%. Although Sustainable Development
Indicator statistics published in July 2014 by the ONS showed
that on a consumption basis emissions have been falling since
2007,[159] the UK's
consumption-based carbon footprint, as we reported last year,
has increased over the past two decades so that the UK's is now
one of the largest in the world.[160]
The Committee on Climate Change state that "countries
have recognised that reductions should be rapid enough to keep
global temperature within 2°C above pre-industrial levels",
and "the UK's 2050 target is broadly consistent with a global
effort to achieve this".[161]
From 2008-2012 the UK reduced its emissions by 22.5% against a
1990 baseline set by the Kyoto protocol, against a target of 12.5%.
EU targets for a post-Kyoto period has been agreed to run from
2013-2020 pending a wider international UNFCCC agreement in Paris
in 2015.
As we reported in our Carbon budgets report, there
had been a risk to our longer term emissions reduction from the
prospect of a review of the Fourth carbon budget (for 2023-2027).
The Government had kept open the prospect of easing the reduction
required in that budget if larger and uncompetitive cuts were
needed in the sectors not covered by the EU Emissions Trading
System because of weak EU ETS carbon prices.[162]
We criticised the Government's review of the fourth carbon budgetannounced
in 2011 and undertaken in 2014because of the prolonged
uncertainty it brought for low-carbon investment.[163]
Our report on Green Finance identified that there is still a significant
gap in levels of low-carbon investment, with levels currently
less than half the £20 billion a year required to meet decarbonisation
targets".[164]
However, the Government's announcement in July 2014 that as a
result of that review the Fourth carbon budget would not be adjusted[165]
brings greater confidence about the UK's future emissions reduction
performanceprovided, as the Committee on Climate Change
has made clear, that the Government soon identifies the additional
emissions reduction policies and programmes that will be needed
to deliver against that budget.[166]
There remains a need, nevertheless, for further tightening
of EU targets for emissions reduction, energy efficiency and renewable
energy. We noted in our Green finance report that the EU's January
2014 Framework for Energy Policy 2030[167]
proposed an overall goal for reducing carbon emissions by 40%
by 2030, in place of an existing target of 20% by 2020, but only
an EU-wide (rather than nationally binding) target for renewable
energy (provisionally set at 27% for 2013).[168]
The Government told us at the time that "we need maximum
flexibility between all options to reduce the UK's carbon emissions"
and "each Member State is different, and will need to pursue
different technologies, in different orders and in different ways".[169]
Final decisions on the targets will be made later this year.[170]
In our current inquiry, WWF called for the Government to press
the EU for a strong greenhouse gas target as well as providing
stronger leadership on climate change globally.[171]
WWF believed that a recent review of DfID's Climate
and Environment Assessment had made the process opaque. They were
concerned that it was a "regression from exploring climate
and particularly environmental issues as opportunities in [international]
development, to seeing environment as risk only".[172]
As regards UK emissions, WWF were critical of the decision to
delay until 2016 the inclusion of international aviation and shipping
emissions in the carbon budgets[173]
and the Government's reluctance to set a power sector decarbonisation
target for 2030 in the Energy Act (a criticism we also made in
our Energy subsidies report).[174]
WWF also highlighted a "collapse in the rate of home energy
efficiency installations" and a "failure to continue
progress towards zero carbon homes in 2016".[175]
In our November 2013 report on the Housing Standards Review we
criticised the Government's decision to discontinue the Code for
Sustainable Homes and to "significantly dilute" the
'Zero carbon Homes' standard in 2016,[176]
which will have consequences for our emissions performance.
Progress was limited in 2013 on solid wall insulation,
low-carbon heat and energy efficiency improvement in non-residential
and commercial buildings. Overall, the first carbon budget (for
2008-2012) was met.
Metrics, targets and milestones?
The Climate Change Act target (to reduce the UK's
greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80% by 2050 from the 1990
baseline) is supplemented by a series of five-year 'carbon budgets',
with emissions set to be halved by the fourth (2023-2027) carbon
budget.[177] The Committee
on Climate Change is required under the Act to report progress
annually on the budgets and to advise Government on the level
of future budgets.
The UK has met the first carbon budget (2008-2012),
and Government has put in place policies to meet commitments to
2022 and has published scenarios for meeting the fourth carbon
budget".[178]
In July 2014, after a review of the fourth budget, the Government
accepted the Committee on Climate Change's earlier recommendation
for this budget. The CCC will advise the Government on the level
of the Fifth budget in 2015.
Causal factors and appropriate policy levers identified?
Government can exercise some control over some emissions,
particularly in the energy sector: subsidies (Feed-in tariffs
and Contracts for difference) for renewable and nuclear energy;
financially supporting Carbon Capture and Storage pilots; and
applying minimum carbon pricing (against an ineffectively low
EU Emission Trading System price) for fossil fuel energy generation.
It can only influence the situation in some sectors, such as agriculture.
On the other hand, the Government does not accept
the findings of our Energy subsidies report that it subsidises
fossil fuels.[179]
A 'Carbon Plan' is intended to monitor Government
departments' actions, but it has not been routinely updated.[180]
The Government has set up a Green Investment Bank
to support low carbon infrastructure projects, with £3.8
billion of Government capital.
The Government will provide £900 million to
support the development and use of ultra-low emission vehicles
between 2010 and 2020.
Buildings' energy efficiency standards are reviewed
and revised though Building Regulations. It has decided however
to discontinue the 'Code for Sustainable Homes' and to allow offsite
'allowable solutions' for new houses to meet a 'Zero carbon Homes'
standard in 2016.[181]
39 Growth Deals with Local Enterprise Partnerships,
worth £6 billion, include £39 million to be invested
in energy, low carbon and renewables facilities.
Air pollution
Current situation and trends
Emissions of a number of airborne pollutants increased
in 2013,[182] after
being steady between 2010 and 2012 and in a longer term decline
before that.[183] The
UK failed to meet targets for nitrogen dioxide pollution in 34
of the 43 zones specified in the EU Ambient Air Quality Directive
in 2012, resulting in the European Commission launching infraction
proceedings against the UK in February 2014 in regard to 16 zones
that would not be compliant by 2015.[184]
In July 2014, Defra reassessed the time likely to be needed to
meet nitrogen dioxide limits, stating that Greater London and
two other areas would not meet the required levels until after
2030.[185] Current
EU targets do not reflect WHO guidelines, which are more stringent.
In our 2011 report on Air Quality we stated:
We can see no circumstances in which a delay
in achieving [EU limit value] targets or a lessening of these
targets would be acceptable. Any delay or lessening would simply
put more lives a risk.[186]
We said that more credible action needed to be taken,
and that progress could also be made through support for local
authorities, joined up policy, health reforms, low emission zones
and increasing public awareness. We argued for a significant shift
in transport policy towards low emission vehicles.
Metrics, targets and milestones?
UK targets reflect EU Directive targets. Emissions
of airborne pollutants are monitored regularly.
Causal factors and appropriate policy levers identified?
The Government financially supports the development
and deployment of ultra-low emission vehicles, cycling initiatives,
the Green Bus Fund and clean bus technology.[187]
But past support for diesel vehicle engines (eg through differential
Vehicle Excise Duty rates) to help tackle carbon emissions for
climate change imperatives has contributed to particulate/NOx
air pollution.
Some levers have not been vigorously pursued: Low
Emissions Zones, public awareness campaigns and increased engagement
with local authorities and across departments were all recommended
by our 2011 report on Air quality.[188]
Biodiversity
Current situation and trends
The Government's Biodiversity 2020 Indicators set
targets for biodiversity to be achieved by 2020. Defra's first
assessment of progress against the Indicators in 2013 showed improvement
against 13 measures, deterioration against 13 measures and little
or no change in 11 (12 measures were in development or had insufficient
data)[189] (see Appendix
2). The latest Sustainable Development Indicatorsa different
set of metricsshow a deterioration in the counts for three
out of four types of bird populations, used as a litmus test for
the SDI's 'UK wildlife' indicator.[190]
Our April 2014 report on Invasive Species described
the threat such species pose to native biodiversity, but also
that where species migrate here from elsewhere in Europe as a
result of climate change this might indicate a shift in the natural
distribution range of particular species, requiring a "a
need to increasingly focus on conservation" rather than necessarily
tackling them.[191]
The RSPB and others recently reiterated that point.[192]
We recommended further work to develop Action Plans for species
on the national and EU lists of species of concern that have become
established in Great Britain, and that clear outcome requirements
for native habitats and species are identified to ensure budgets
for controlling them are not spent ineffectively. To tackle species
that become invasive, we also recommended Rapid Response Plans,
and that invasive species legislation be tightened for England
and Wales[193] (which
the Government subsequently accepted).[194]
The RSPB and Wildlife Trusts told us that one in
10 species monitored globally is on the brink of extinction.[195]
Wildlife and Countryside Link saw implementation of Biodiversity
2020 as a particular area of concern.[196]
The CLA also considered it an area which had seen most deterioration
since 2010,[197] although
they viewed the Biodiversity Indicators as "hugely ambitious".[198]
Policy Exchange told us that the natural environment is undervalued,
which has had a detrimental effect on biodiversity.[199]
The Convention on Biological Diversity, revised at
the 2010 Nagoya Biodiversity Summit, set several targets, including
that "by 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified
and prioritised, priority species are controlled or eradicated,
and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their
introduction and establishment"[200]
and that "by 2020, the extinction of known threatened species
has been prevented and their conservation status, particularly
of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained".[201]
In our recent report on the National Pollinator
Strategy, we noted a widespread concern that the way Defra
was implementing the 'greening' element of the EU Common Agricultural
Programme for 2014-2020 was a "wasted opportunity" because
of its lack of pollinator-specific measures. Recent reports highlight
a significant deterioration of wildflower meadows despite the
CAP programmes, and cite a forthcoming report from Natural England
identifying a loss of permanent grassland.[202]
Metrics, targets and milestones?
The Biodiversity Indicators set targets for biodiversity
to be achieved by 2020. These cover a diverse range of areas including
habitat protection, animal populations, public use and enjoyment
of the natural environment, climate change impacts and adaptation,
and the impact of hazardous materials. The indicators are monitored
and reported on annually.
Causal factors and appropriate policy levers identified?
Land use, including agriculture, is a key determinant
of biodiversity outcomes. CAP supports particular agricultural
activities, and includes 'greening' measures. Government will
spend £3 billion on working with land managers to "enhance
biodiversity and improve the quality of English water bodies".[203]
The Government has proposed a system of biodiversity
offsetting, which it is currently under further consideration.[204]
48 Local Nature Partnerships have been established,
which bring together environmental groups as well as planners
and developers,[205]
and 12 Nature Improvement Areas have been developed.[206]
These were intended to being the 'landscape scale' perspective
envisaged in the Natural Environment White Paper.[207]
Biodiversity is increasingly being affected by non-native
invasive species, driven by international trade and climate change.
The Government has indicated that it will implement 'Species Control
Orders' in England and Wales (through the current Infrastructure
Bill) to help tackle invasive species, replicating the system
in Scotland, as recommended by the Law Commission.[208]
Forests
Current situation and trends
As at March 2014, 55% of England's woodlands were
managed under the 'UK Forestry Standard', which sets good practice
guidelines for sustainable forest management, an increase from
52% in 2011. The Government's ambition of two-thirds of all woodland
meeting the Standard by 2018 and then rising to 80% would, as
the NAO reported, require acceleration. Wildlife and Countryside
Link wanted the Government to "develop a public forest estate
management organisation which will maximise the wildlife and public
value of our public forests and woods".[209]
The CLA were concerned by the proliferation of diseases in trees.[210]
In response to the outbreak of chalara, the Government has published
the Tree Health Management Plan to set out the work being done
to manage tree pests and pathogens.[211]
The Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee reported recently
on Tree health and plant biosecurity, recommending that funding
is increased for research and development and that current legislative
protections are increased.[212]
Around 2,500 hectares of new woodland has been created
in England annually since 2008 through Forestry Commission funding,
with woodland cover reaching 10% in 2013.[213]
The Woodland Trust nevertheless identified a "massive fall
in tree planting rates in England over the past two decades".[214]
While the Government calculated that current planting rates would
need to be increased to 5,000 hectares a year,[215]
the Woodland Trust
In terms of international deforestation, WWF called
for zero net deforestation by 2020, achievable they told us if
the "timber market in the UK and Europe trades only in sustainably
produced products".[216]
They raised particular concern about the illegal timber trade,
believing that there is inadequate monitoring and reporting of
the Timber Procurement Policy. In July 2014 a European Commission
assessment of adherence to its timber regulations identified the
UK as one of only 13 compliant member states.[217]
WWF called on the Government to produce an international forestry
strategy and review the EU Timber Regulation.[218]
Metrics, targets and milestones?
The target is for woodland cover of 12% by 2060 (see
above). The Forestry and Woodlands Policy Statement 2013
contains 36 commitments which Government is pursuing along with
private and voluntary sector partners.
There are also targets for forest management under
the UK Forestry Standard (see above).
Causal factors and appropriate policy levers identified?
Financial support for planting is provided through
grants administered by the Forestry Commission. Defra has committed
to providing funding for 2,000 hectares to be planted in the 2015-2016
planting season. An increase in the rate of planting will be need
to achieve the potential for 12% woodland cover sought for 2060.
Soils
Current situation and trends
In 2011, Defra proposed that by 2030 England's soils
would be managed sustainably, including stopping the horticultural
use of peat. It committed to an additional new programme of soil
research between 2011 and 2015 with a budget of £3.2 million.
In the 10 years to 2013 there have been improvements to the health
of upland peatlands in England, the NAO reported, although the
overall level of degradation is still high. In 2013 the Committee
on Climate Change reported that 12% of SSSIs in upland areas in
England with deep peat deposits were in a favourable condition,
a fall from 16% in 2003. There was however an increase in the
proportion of SSSI sites undergoing restoration. There were limited
plans for restoration of other peat sites.[219]
The Woodland Trust calculate that around 2.2 million tonnes of
top soil are eroded annually in the UK.[220]
The EU Soil Framework Directive was "pending
for eight years as a result of a blocking minority which includes
the UK".[221]
The UK was opposed to the implementation of the proposed Directive
on the grounds that the proposal would duplicate existing requirements
under the Common Agricultural Policy and would be costly to farmers.[222]
The Directive was withdrawn by the European Commission in May
2014. The Woodland Trust called upon Government to
take a critical look at the way in which land
management contributes to soil erosion and how to integrate non-crop
habitattrees, shelter belts, other habitatinto farming
systems in ways which can support production while also helping
to reduce the risk of erosion.[223]
The challenge is not just to protect soils in rural
landscapes. There has been concern from Environmental Protection
UK, the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health and others
about the withdrawal of central Government grants after 2013-14
for local authorities' work on contaminated land remediation.[224]
The CIEH told us that "without the prospect of necessary
remediation being funded, it would be a reckless local authority
which determined a site as 'contaminated' without having identified
an appropriate person able to pay".[225]
Dr Karen Johnson of Durham University saw remediation and redevelopment
of brownfield land as a public health issue. She told us that:
It is important to recognise that the implications
of poor soil quality are not only environmental. For example,
our current research exploring the regeneration of brownfield
land shows that it has wider negative impacts on the general health
of communities that live in proximity to it.
I recommend that further progress on England's
soil management should emphasise the development of techniques
for processing and reintroducing organic wastes into the soil,
working closely with engineers in industry and academia.[226]
Such an approach would not only increase the sequestration
of carbon in soils but make them more resilient to flooding risks
by more readily holding water.[227]
Metrics, targets and milestones?
In 2011 Defra set an ambition that by 2030 England's
soils would be managed sustainably, including stopping the horticultural
use of peat.[228]
The condition of SSSIs is monitored, with the Committee
on Climate Change reporting figures on the carbon impacts.
Causal factors and appropriate policy levers identified?
The designation of SSSIs provides some protection
for soils through controls on permitted land uses. There is limited
evidence of plans for restoration for upland peat areas not designated
as an SSSI.[229]
On agricultural land, the CAP system influences agricultural
activities, including non-cropping green programmes, which influence
soil conditions. The UK was part of a blocking minority which
stopped the implementation of the proposed EU Soil Framework Directive,
on the grounds that the proposal would duplicate existing requirements
under the Common Agricultural Policy and would be costly to farmers.
A 2011-2015 programme of soil research is underway,
with a budget of £3.2 million.
Defra intends a cessation of the horticultural use
of peat by 2030.
Flooding and coastal protection
Current situation and trends
At December 2013, 2.4 million properties were at
risk of flooding from rivers or the sea, and three million were
at risk from surface water (including some properties at risk
from both). Progress continues on improving protection from flooding
in homes, although Defra has not set a target for the number of
homes to be protected.[230]
There was widespread and persistent flooding in the
winter of 2013-2014.[231]
In 2013 Wildlife and Countryside Link assessed the Government's
development of natural flood alleviation measures as "consistently
poor".[232] Building
on floodplains should be reduced substantially, they concluded,
and sustainable drainage systems needed to be developed.[233]
The Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee has made several
recommendations for managing flood risk, including affordable
household flood insurance, increased dredging and maintenance
of watercourses and increased funding.[234]
The Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust recommended the use
of such systems to help alleviate flooding by "absorb[ing]
surface run-off on-site through features like green roofs, shales
and permeable paving".[235]
The Woodland Trust believed that strategic wood planting could
also play an integral role in reducing floods.[236]
The Environment Food and Rural Affairs Committee
has reported extensively on these issues. In its 2013 report on
Managing flood risk, the Committee recommended investment
in flood defences and that "maximum use is made of natural
methods to prevent and manage flooding".[237]
It recommended the installation of "sustainable drainage
measures which will improve the management of water run-off from
roads".[238] In
its report on Winter floods 2013-14 it recommended that
funding be increased to combat flood risk:
We recommend Defra increase revenue funding to
ensure that there is sufficient investment in maintenance work,
including conveyance and dredging. We urge Defra to immediately
draw up fully funded plans to address the backlog of appropriate
and necessary maintenance work and to accommodate the increased
requirement caused by the growth in numbers of capital assets.[239]
Metrics, targets and milestones?
Environment Agency calculates and monitors number
of properties and area of farmland at flood risk. A detailed combined
risk assessment is expected from the Environment Agency by 2017.
The Environment Agency reports that it has maintained 98% of flood
and coastal risk management assets at or above the required condition.[240]
Causal factors and appropriate policy levers identified?
Climate change appears to be driving an increase
in extreme weather, including sudden heavy rainfall, and rising
sea-levels which will put pressure on coastal defences. Exposure
to flooding risks is influenced by the extent of building in risk
areas (eg on flood plains), the embedding of defensive measures
in existing and new building (eg sustainable drainage) and the
building and maintenance of flood defence infrastructure.
Defra stated that the Environment Agency and local
defences protected properties in approximately 1.3 million instances,
and that 54 new flood defence protection projects will begin in
2014, protecting more than 42,000 households by the end of the
year.[241] The Government
is seeking to "improve the efficiency of its flood protection
works and leverage in more [private sector] contributions".[242]
Resource efficiency and waste
Current situation and trends
As we concluded in our recent report on the Circular
economy, "the current way our economy consumes resources
is not sustainable".[243]
The Government told us that "in the current challenging economic
times it is essential that we make the best use of materials and
resources".[244]
In England, household recycling rates have plateaued in recent
years, and are currently at 43%. The National Audit Office has
identified a risk that the UK may not meet the current 50% target
for 2020. We concluded that the Government's approach lacks leadership,
and that it must do more to ensure that the right conditions are
in place so that many more businesses shift from a 'linear' approach
to a 'circular' one.[245]
Our report made several recommendations, including embedding the
circular economy in industrial strategy, differential VAT rates
linked to the environmental impact of products and the introduction
of Government advice on a standard approach to recycling for local
authorities.[246]
Metrics, targets and milestones?
Whilst there are several metrics relating to waste
volumes and percentages of re-use, our recent inquiry heard from
BIS that there was "quite a lot of work still to do to develop
the metrics and a better understanding".[247]
The EU Waste Framework Directive requires member
states to recover a minimum of 70% of construction and demolition
waste by 2020. Defra considers that the UK is on track to meet
or exceed this target, but lacks the evidence to reliably demonstrate
this.
The Directive includes a target to recycle or prepare
for re-use 50% of household waste by 2020. In England, household
recycling rates have plateaued in recent years, and are currently
at 43%. The National Audit Office has identified a risk that the
UK may not meet the current 50% target. We concluded that the
Government's approach lacks leadership, and that it must do more
to ensure that the right conditions are in place so that many
more businesses shift from a linear approach to a circular one
Causal factors and appropriate policy levers identified?
A circular economy could reduce arising waste, through
design, re-use and re-manufacture. Such an economy will depend
on private sector innovation, but also Government playing a facilitating
role. The Government has produced a waste strategy and set a 'waste
hierarchy'. It sets planning guidance for local authorities on
waste management. It also sets rates for Landfill Tax.
Our recent report on the Circular economy recommended
differential VAT rates based on life-cycle analysis of the environmental
impact or recycled content of products, tax allowances for businesses
that repair goods or promote re-use, removing trade barriers for
remanufactured goods, and embedding the circular economy into
Industrial Strategies.[248]
The freshwater environment
Current situation and trends
The EU Water Framework Directive requires all water
bodies to be of 'good ecological status' by 2027, and to this
end the Government has set an ambition of 32% of surface water
bodies being in good ecological status by 2015. For the longer
term, the 2011 Natural Environment White Paper set a goal of all
water bodies in England being in 'excellent' condition by 2050.
The NAO reported that there had been little change
in the ecological status of England's surface water bodies since
2010, with the Environment Agency assessing 25% to be of good
ecological status. The Environment Agency concluded that the Government's
32% target would not be met, but believed that current measures
would deliver significant improvements.[249]
The WWF nevertheless identified "a decline in the number
of our freshwater systems which are in good ecological status
and no progress on this since 2010".[250]
The RSPB wanted urgent action to tackle diffuse pollution from
agriculture.[251]
Metrics, targets and milestones?
Government is aiming for 32% of surface water bodies
being of good ecological status by 2015 as an milestone towards
EU targets for 2027 (see above). The Government will publish river
basin management plans by the end of 2015 setting out the extent
and nature of improvements it is seeking to the water environment
to 2021 and beyond.[252]
Causal factors and appropriate policy levers identified?
The UK's progress is affected by a history of intensive
land use and diffusive pollution remains a problem. CAP policies,
including their greening measures, influence land use and the
extent of fertiliser/chemical application, which in turn can affect
the health of water bodies.
The Government stated that it will spend more than
£3 billion on working with land managers to "enhance
biodiversity and improve the quality of English water bodies".[253]
Water availability
Current situation and trends
Nine of 24 water areas in England and Wales are classified
as experiencing serious water stress. In 2012-13, the 22 water
companies of England and Wales reported in aggregate the lowest
level of water leakage since records began in the early 1990s.
On the other hand, freshwater abstraction increased by 20% in
2012, which Defra attributed to an increased use for hydropower.
Demand is expected to continue to increase.[254]
Metrics, targets and milestones?
Areas under 'water stress' are assessed by the Environment
Agency,[255] and OFWAT
measure leakage rates. OFWAT's targets for leakage were met by
all but one of the 22 water companies for 2012-2013.[256]
Causal factors and appropriate policy levers identified?
The use of water in agriculture, industries such
as hydropower and in carbon capture and storage technology increases
demand on water supplies. Fracking may also affect water availability.
The Government's 2011 Water for Life[257]
stated that legislation would be simplified as part of the 'Red
Tape Challenge', and put catchment pilots into place. It "set
out the Government's vision for a sustainable, resilient and customer
focused water sector".[258]
The Water Act 2014 reforms the water market to make
it more open; gives OFWAT a new over-arching duty to take greater
account of long-term water resilience; removes the statutory right
of water companies in England and Wales to compensation when an
abstraction licence is revoked or varied; and aligns water companies'
reporting cycles.[259]
The marine environment
Current situation and trends
In 2011 the UK introduced a requirement for marine
plans, intended to provide strategic direction for local decisions
on the use of marine resources and management of marine activities.
England's first marine plans were adopted in spring 2014 and plans
for all 11 English areas are required to be completed by 2022.[260]
As we described in our report on Marine protected areas, the Government
has implemented 27 Marine Conservation Zones.[261]
We criticised the lack of ambition in the Government's aim to
increase the number of these in 2015 and 2016, which we concluded
"suggests a lack of Government commitment to this initiative".[262]
The Government's Response to our Report did not dispel that suggestion.[263]
The EU has reformed the Common Fisheries Policy through
regulations seeking to ensure legally binding fishing limits are
set at sustainable levels by 2015 where possible, and by 2020
at the latest. The Government is in the process of implementing
these reforms.[264]
The EU's 2008 Marine Strategy Framework Directive
requires member states to achieve 'good environmental status'
in Europe's seas by 2020. To help ensure this is delivered, the
Natural Environment Research Council wanted to see urgent work
to improve protection against invasive species and action to tackle
underwater sound.[265]
Defra is currently evaluating the feedback received in a 2014
consultation on how best to monitor the marine environment around
the UK.
The latest assessment of the UK's marine environment
status (covering 2005-2010) shows an improvement in diversity
and abundance of 'demersal' fish (living on or near the bottom
of the sea), overall water bird populations facing few or no problems
in most regions, and more estuaries being cleaner. Seabirds and
harbour seal numbers had started to decline in some regions with
no clear cause. The proportion of fish stocks fished sustainably
has improved over the long term. The International Council for
the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) estimated in 2011 that 47% of
shared fish stocks around the UK were fished sustainably (up from
33% in 2008). ICES data for the North East Atlantic (including
all fisheries around the UK) shows that in 2013 59% of stocks
were being fished inside safe biological limits, up from 32% in
2008.[266]
Metrics, targets and milestones?
Progress is measured by the percentage of seas assessed
as in 'good environmental status', as well as biodiversity and
sustainable fishing levels and fish stocks (outlined in the EU
Common Fisheries Policy). Marine plans and Marine Conservation
Zones are also being implemented (see below).
Causal factors and appropriate policy levers identified?
In 2011 the UK adopted a new approach to managing
the seas, introducing a requirement for marine plans, intended
to provide strategic direction for local decisions on the use
of marine resources and management of marine activities. England's
first marine plans were adopted in spring 2014 and plans for all
11 English areas should be completed by 2022.[267]
Marine Protected Areas are designated under the Marine
and Coastal Access Act 2009.[268]
These include 27 Marine Conservation Zones designated. Our report
on Marine protected areas concluded that the MCZ programme
had suggested a lack of ambition and identified gaps in the level
and types of biodiversity covered. [269]
The Government has reviewed the approach to UK commercial
fishery management. The EU has reformed the Common Fisheries Policy
through regulations seeking to ensure legally binding fishing
limits are set at sustainable levels by 2015 where possible and
by 2020 at the latest. The Government is in the process of implementing
these reforms.[270]
152 Environmental Audit Committee, Fifth Report of
Session 2013-14, Progress on carbon budgets, HC 60, page 3 Back
153
Adaptation Sub-Committee, Managing climate risks to well-being and the economy
(July 2014), page 15 Back
154
WWF-UK (ESC0011), page 6 Back
155
WWF-UK (ESC0011), page 7 Back
156
Environmental Audit Committee, Fifth Report of Session 2013-14,
Progress on carbon budgets, HC 60, page 3 Back
157
Committee on Climate Change, Meeting carbon budgets (July
2014), page 55 Back
158
Office for National Statistics, UK energy in brief 2014 (July
2014), page 31 Back
159
ONS, Sustainable development indicators (July 2014), figure 9.1 Back
160
Environmental Audit Committee, Fifth Report of Session 2013-14,
Progress on carbon budgets, HC 60, page 4 Back
161
CCC website Back
162
Environmental Audit Committee, Fifth Report of Session 2013-14,
Progress on carbon budgets, HC 60, para 25 Back
163
Environmental Audit Committee, Fifth Report of Session 2013-14,
Progress on carbon budgets, HC 60 Back
164
Environmental Audit Committee Twelfth Report of Session 2013-14
Green Finance, HC 191 Back
165
HC Deb, 22 July 2014, col 115WS Back
166
Committee on Climate Change, Meeting carbon budgets (July
2014), Page 25 Back
167
European Commission, 2030 climate and energy goals for a competitive, secure and low-carbon EU economy
(January 2014) Back
168
Environmental Audit Committee, Twelfth Report of Session 2013-14,
Green Finance, HC 191, para 6 Back
169
Environmental Audit Committee, Seventh Special Report of Session
2013-14, Energy Subsidies: Government Response to the Committee's Ninth Report of 2013-14,
HC 1103, paras 27 and 28 Back
170
Environmental Audit Committee, Third Special Report of Session
2013-14, Green Finance: Government Response to the Committee's Twelfth Report of Session 2013-14,
HC 330 Back
171
WWF-UK (ESC0023), page 6 Back
172
WWF-UK (ESC0011), page 5 Back
173
WWF-UK (ESC0011), page 5 Back
174
Environmental Audit Committee, Ninth Report of Session 2013-14,
Energy subsidies, HC61 Back
175
WWF-UK (ESC0011) page 5 Back
176
Environmental Audit Committee, Eighth Report of Session 2013-14,
Code for Sustainable Homes and the Housing Standards Review, HC192 Back
177
Defra (ESC0013) para 2.3 Back
178
Defra (ESC0013) para 5.2 Back
179
Environmental Audit Committee, Ninth Report of Session 2013-14,
Energy subsidies, HC61, page 3 Back
180
Environmental Audit Committee, Fifth Report of Session 2013-14,
Progress on carbon budgets, HC 60, page 3 Back
181
Environmental Audit Committee, Eighth Report of Session 2013-14,
Code for Sustainable Homes and the Housing Standards Review, HC
192 Back
182
Defra, Air Quality Statistics in the UK, 1987-2013 (April 2014) Back
183
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.10 Back
184
Defra (AIR0050) Back
185
Defra; Updated projections for Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) compliance
(July 2014) Back
186
Environmental Audit Committee, Ninth Report of Session 2010-12,
Air quality: A follow up report, HC 1024, para 20 Back
187
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.9 Back
188
Environmental Audit Committee, Ninth Report of Session 2010-12,
Air quality: A follow up report, HC 1024, page 3 Back
189
Defra, A strategy for England's wildlife and ecosystem services, Biodiversity Indicators: 2013 Assessment
(October 2013) Back
190
ONS, Sustainable development indicators (July 2014) Back
191
Environmental Audit Committee, Fourteenth Report of Session 2013-14,
Invasive non-native species, HC 913, para 19 Back
192
"Efforts to curb invasive species spark battle in the countryside",
The Observer, 23 August 2014 Back
193
Environmental Audit Committee, Fourteenth Report of Session 2013-14,
Invasive non-native species, HC 913
page 27 Back
194
Environmental Audit Committee, Fourteenth Report of Session 2013-14,
Invasive non-native species, HC 913, Back
195
RSPB and The Wildlife Trusts (ESC0008) para 2.3 Back
196
Wildlife and Countryside Link, Nature Check 2013 (November 2013),
para 3.1 Back
197
CLA (ESC0007) para 1.2 Back
198
CLA (ESC0007) para 3.1 Back
199
Policy Exchange (ESC0006) page 1 Back
200
CBD website, Target 9 Back
201
CBD website, Target 12 Back
202
"Wildflower meadow protection plan backfires", BBC News
website, 3 September 2014 Back
203
Defra (ESC0013), para 1.2 Back
204
Defra (ESC0013, para 7.11 Back
205
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
1.9 Back
206
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.16 Back
207
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
1.4 Back
208
The Law Commission, Wildlife law: control of invasive non-native species
(February 2014) Back
209
Wildlife and Countryside Link (ESC0016), para 3.4 Back
210
CLA (ESC0007, para 1.6 Back
211
Defra (ESC0013), para 8.3 Back
212
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Tenth Report of
Session 2013--4, Tree health and plant biosecurity, HC
469, Page 3 Back
213
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), paras
2.25 Back
214
Woodland Trust (ESC0012) para 2.1 Back
215
Defra, Government forestry and woodlands policy statement,
PB13871, January 2013, page 23 Back
216
WWF-UK (ESC0011), page 4 Back
217
European Commission, Timber regulation: Table with information on the state of implementation of the Regulation
(July 2014) Back
218
WWF-UK (ESC0011) page 1 Back
219
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), paras
2.30-2.34 Back
220
Woodland Trust (ESC0012) para 6.1 Back
221
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.31 Back
222
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.31 Back
223
Woodland Trust (ESC0012), para 6.6 Back
224
Environmental Protection UK, Defra contaminated land capital grants to be axed
(December 2013); Chartered Institute of Environmental Health,
New contaminated land guidance putting public at risk (February
2014) Back
225
CIEH (ESC0024) Back
226
Karen Johnson, Durham University (ESC0021) Back
227
Karen Johnson, Durham University (ESC0021) Back
228
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.30 Back
229
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.32 Back
230
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Third Report of
Session 2013-14, Managing flood risk, HC 330, para 9 Back
231
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, First Report of
Session 2014-15, Winter floods 2013-14. HC 240 Back
232
Wildlife and Countryside Link, Nature Check 2013 (November 2013),
para 3.22 Back
233
Wildlife and Countryside Link, Nature Check 2013 (November 2013),
para 3.22 Back
234
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Third Report of
Session 2013-14, Managing flood risk, HC 330,
page 3 Back
235
Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust (ESC0020) page 1 Back
236
Woodland Trust (ESC0012) para 5.6 Back
237
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Third Report of
Session 2013-14, Managing flood risk, HC 330,
para 24 Back
238
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, Third Report of
Session 2013-14, Managing flood risk, HC 330,
para 49 Back
239
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, First Report of
Session 2014-15, Winter floods 2013-14. HC 240,
para 54 Back
240
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.38 Back
241
Defra (ESC0013) para 10.4 Back
242
Defra (ESC0013) para 10.5 Back
243
Environmental Audit Committee, Third Report of Session 2014-15,
Growing the circular economy: ending the throwaway society, HC
214, page 3 Back
244
Defra (ESC0013) para 11.2 Back
245
Environmental Audit Committee Third Report of Session 2014-15,
Green Finance, HC 214 Back
246
Environmental Audit Committee, Third Report of Session 2014-15,
Growing the circular economy: ending the throwaway society, HC
214, page 34 Back
247
Environmental Audit Committee, Third Report of Session 2014-15,
Growing the circular economy: ending the throwaway society, HC
214, para 63 Back
248
Environmental Audit Committee, Third Report of Session 2014-15,
Growing the circular economy: ending the throwaway society, HC
214, pp 34, 35 Back
249
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.51 Back
250
WWF-UK (ESC0011) page 5 Back
251
RSPB (ESC0014) annex Back
252
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.53 Back
253
Defra (ESC0013) para 1.2 Back
254
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), paras
2.56-2.59 Back
255
Environment Agency, Water stressed areas-final classification
(July 2013) Back
256
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.59 Back
257
Defra, Water for life (December 2011) Back
258
Defra (ESC0013) para 13.1 Back
259
Defra (ESC0013) para 13.3 Back
260
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.64 Back
261
Environmental Audit Committee, First Report of Session 2014-15,
Marine protected areas, HC 221, page 3 Back
262
Environmental Audit Committee, First Report of Session 2014-15,
Marine protected areas, HC 221, page 3 Back
263
Environmental Audit Committee, Sixth Special Report of Session
2014-15, Marine Protected Areas, HC 651 Back
264
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.62 Back
265
Natural Environment Research Council (ESC0015) page 3 Back
266
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.66 Back
267
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.68 Back
268
Environmental Audit Committee, First Report of Session 2014-15,
Marine protected areas, HC 221, page 5 Back
269
Environmental Audit Committee, First Report of Session 2014-15,
Marine protected areas, HC 221, para 32 Back
270
National Audit Office, Environmental protection (June 2014), para
2.63 Back