2Quantum Technologies and their Applications
6.This Chapter outlines what quantum technologies are and summarises their potential applications, their level of development and what consideration is being given to the wider impact they may have on society.
Quantum technologies
7.Under certain conditions, typically found at very small length-scales,7 the classical laws of physics that govern everyday behaviour are observed to break down, and the less intuitive rules of quantum physics must be used to predict behaviour instead. This behaviour can be very different from that observed in everyday life, with objects behaving both as particles and waves, existing in a combination of states simultaneously (for example, simultaneously spinning clockwise and anticlockwise), and apparently interacting with distant objects instantaneously.8 Professor David Delpy, Chair of the National Quantum Technologies Programme’s Strategic Advisory Board, told us that to some extent every technology is a quantum technology, “since everything is made up of atoms, which, of course, obey quantum laws”.9 Quantum technologies are generally considered, however, to be those that “harness quantum physics to gain a functionality or performance which […] cannot be explained by classical physics”.10
8.Quantum physics started to be understood at the beginning of the 20th Century, and it already underpins important technologies such as most electronic devices, lasers, global positioning satellite systems and computers. Despite the significant impact of these existing technologies, the National Quantum Technologies Programme has said that “over the past hundred years we have barely scratched the surface of what quantum technologies can achieve”.11 Research into quantum physics has steadily improved the extent to which the subtler aspects of quantum behaviour can be reliably controlled and put to use, leading to the emergence of a new generation of technologies currently under development. Professor Sir Peter Knight, Emeritus Professor at Imperial College London, explained further:
We have been using quantum [effects] in lasers, semiconductors and so on for many years. They are quantum enabled, but they do not necessarily exploit what is called quantum coherence. Quantum coherence is the weird ability to put things into superpositions of both here and there […] We are working out ways in which we can get a technological application of the oddities of superpositions, entanglement and so on. That is why sometimes it is called ‘quantum 2.0’. It is the next stage [for quantum technologies].12
This second generation of quantum technologies comprises different technologies with a variety of applications. The National Quantum Technologies Programme has organised these into four overall fields:
- quantum sensing and metrology;
- quantum-enhanced imaging;
- quantum communications; and
- quantum computing.13
Uses in each of these fields are outlined below.
Quantum sensors and metrology
9.Professor Knight explained that achieving the “quantum coherence” needed for the next generation of quantum technologies was “really hard”, because the more components a quantum system contains, the more effectively it “talks” to its surrounding environment—and this interaction with the outside environment must be carefully controlled to preserve the coherence.14 However, he noted that “defects in one place [can] become advantages in others”, explaining that this extreme sensitivity to the external environment is a quality that “makes a really great sensor”.15 Hence one initial use for quantum technologies is for sensing and measuring things such as electric, magnetic and gravitational fields, air pressure or the presence of specific chemicals, with extreme accuracy.16 Indeed, Professor Delpy specified that quantum sensors offer “a way of approaching the real, fundamental limits of measurement and sensing”.17
10.The range of quantities that can be measured offers a diversity of potential applications for quantum sensors. Professor Kai Bongs, Director of the Quantum Technology Hub for Sensors and Metrology, gave examples of applications in the construction and healthcare sectors to illustrate the potential uses for quantum sensors:
On infrastructure productivity, we see large potential in removing uncertainty about underground conditions as a major risk in infrastructure projects, and in helping rail projects such as HS2 or the development of houses on brownfield sites to go quicker. In the healthcare domain, magnetic sensors allow you to look into the brain and learn about brain functionality, and open up pathways for new diagnostics that range from concentration deficits in children to dementia in the ageing society.18
The National Quantum Technologies Programme has additionally highlighted opportunities for quantum sensors in natural resources discovery, environmental monitoring and earthquake prediction, navigation and defence.19
Quantum-enhanced imaging
11.Increased control of quantum effects also offers opportunities to improve upon the capabilities and resolution of conventional imaging systems. In its 2016 report on quantum technologies, the Government Office for Science highlighted several examples of potential quantum-enhanced imaging systems and their possible applications, including:
- cameras capable of imaging through obscuring material such as dirty water or fog, one use of which may be to help guide autonomous vehicles;
- cameras that can see around corners, with military and civilian uses;
- cameras that can take 3D images, with applications including prototype development in manufacturing and improved robot capability;
- cheap, portable sensors for imaging invisible gases, which could be used to detect leaks; and
- medical imaging systems that avoid the need for harmful radiation.20
Quantum communications
12.Professor Tim Spiller, Director of the Quantum Communications Hub, told us that the motivation behind quantum communications technologies is “all about [providing] secure communications”.21 The technologies being developed for communication seek to make use of the fact that the quantum properties of an object cannot be measured without being “unavoidably and irrevocably disturbed from their original state”.22 This means that if two communicators exchange messages with each other using the quantum properties of an object that they send between themselves (for example, the wave properties of a beam of light), there is a guarantee that any method used to intercept the message would be detectable. Therefore, in theory, quantum technology can provide communications systems that would be completely secure against any current or future interception technologies.23
13.Prototype quantum communications systems have already been used in real-world applications, for example in the Geneva Canton elections of 2007 and at the 2010 FIFA World Cup.24 These involved short-range communication over dedicated connections between two pre-determined points. Goals for the quantum communications community now include:
- reducing the cost, size and power consumption of the devices needed for quantum communication;
- integrating quantum communications technologies into existing telecommunications devices;
- developing networks of quantum communication systems; and
- developing systems that can communicate over open space rather than through optical fibre.25
Quantum computing
14.Conventional computers store and process information using vast numbers of components that can each be in one of two states, usually labelled as ‘1’ or ‘0’ (or alternatively ‘on’ or ‘off’). These components are typically simple electronic devices, often just several thousandths of the width of a human hair in size,26 with each one storing one piece, or ‘bit’, of information. Quantum computers exploit quantum effects to replace these ‘bits’ with ‘qubits’, which can each exist in a combination of ‘0’ and ‘1’ simultaneously (a ‘qubit’ is just a bit that exhibits quantum behaviour). The ability of qubits to be in multiple states at once means that a quantum computer can try large numbers of solutions to a problem simultaneously, offering enormous reductions in computing times for certain kinds of calculations. For example, whereas a conventional computer would take millions of years to work through all the possible combinations of a digital ‘key’ to access secured information, a quantum computer could try them all at once and arrive at the solution in a few seconds.27 Emphasising this point, Professor Ian Walmsley, Director of the Networked Quantum Information Technologies Hub, told us that the “quantum computer is as different from the modern-day computer as the modern computer is from the abacus”.28
15.As described above, quantum computers offer radically improved performance over conventional computers for solving certain kinds of problems. Some of the anticipated applications for this capability include:
- simulating chemical behaviour to enhance drug or materials discovery;29
- optimising logistical arrangements, such as task allocation in the NHS or the management of supply chains;30 and
- increasing the speed and capacity of data analysis, enabling improvements in artificial intelligence.31
The Networked Quantum Information Technologies Hub told us that many of these potential applications are “speculative”, but that “history suggests that disruptive technology indeed creates new products and services that are socially desirable”.32 Professor Winfried Hensinger, of the University of Sussex, similarly told us that “it is very unlikely that we fully understand all the opportunities quantum computers pose” but drew comparisons to the unknown applications of conventional computers when they were first built.33 Despite the uncertainty surrounding the ultimate uses of quantum computers, Jonathan Flint, President-Elect of the Institute of Physics, described them as “rightly the poster child” of quantum technologies due to the “huge implications” if successfully developed.34
Technological readiness
16.In 2015, the National Quantum Technologies Programme’s Strategic Advisory Board published a roadmap for quantum technology development, which estimated the commercialisation of different application areas over timescales ranging from within five to over 20 years.35 Although the different quantum technologies and application areas are at different stages of development, the University of Strathclyde told us that in broad terms, society stands “on the cusp” of a second “quantum revolution”.36 The UCL Quantum Science and Technology Institute similarly told us that quantum technologies are “currently undergoing a profound transition, as the field’s balance starts to shift from [being] academically-driven towards commercial-driven research […] where systems integration and engineering are the key challenges”.37 Teledyne e2v noted, however, that these challenges will take time to overcome, cautioning that:
Although there are very encouraging demonstrations of future capabilities it is true that in many areas there is much more to be done to reach the delivery of real products and services with superior performance exceeding that of incumbent solutions.38
17.Quantum computers are widely considered to be the quantum technology furthest from market,39 although Professor John Morton, of University College London, noted that progress on this front had recently been made quicker than expected.40 Professor Walmsley told us that early-stage, very small-scale quantum computers already existed, but that “there is a very wide range of opinions” on when a fully scalable quantum computer will be available; he estimated that “it will be five to ten years before the next generation of real computers begins to emerge”.41 Professor Morton told us that the development of a quantum computer “able to solve a problem that the world’s fastest super-computer cannot solve” is expected by 2019, but clarified that “it will not be a useful [problem], and we expect it to stimulate a lot of work over the next, say, three years to find useful problems that such computers can solve”.42
18.Although the market opportunity for quantum technologies lies predominantly in the future, we heard that business investment and procurement was already taking place. Professor Trevor Cross, Chief Technology Officer at Teledyne e2v, told us that his company had started taking orders for quantum technology components,43 while M Squared told us that “the first commercial outcomes from our portfolio of Innovate UK programmes are now being offered to existing customers”.44 Airbus told us that the potential of quantum technologies to help them deliver “greater performing, more efficient and environmentally friendly aircraft” had led them to establish a Quantum Technology Application Centre at its facility in South Wales.45 The University of Bristol told us that for every £1 invested in their Quantum Engineering Technology Labs, companies spun out from the centre had already raised £1.70.46
The National Quantum Technologies Programme
19.In the 2013 Autumn Statement, the Government announced an investment of £270m over five years into a National Quantum Technologies Programme, “to support translation of the UK’s world leading quantum research into application and new industries”.47 As part of this programme, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council invested £120m into a national network of four new Quantum Technology Hubs, each spread over multiple universities in the UK.48 The four Hubs were tasked with “tackling the key technological challenges that need to be overcome to realise the promise of quantum technologies”,49 and covered the four application areas outlined in paragraphs 9 to 15 of this Report: sensors and metrology; imaging; communications; and networked information technology. In addition to the Hubs, the programme has provided:
- £50m for innovation, including industry-led feasibility studies, collaborative research and development projects and the creation of a cross-sectoral Quantum Technologies Special Interest Group, which aims to explore market opportunities and build UK supply chains;
- £49m for training and skills, which has enabled the establishment of three Centres for Doctoral Training in quantum technology and three Training and Skills Hubs in quantum systems engineering;
- £30m for quantum technology demonstrator projects overseen by the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, in areas such as gravity imaging and quantum navigation;
- £29m to establish a Quantum Metrology Institute, based at the National Physical Laboratory, to provide the measurement expertise and facilities needed to develop quantum technologies; and
- £16.5m for Quantum Technologies Fellowships, awarded to 14 key researchers and their teams to address the challenges of translating quantum science through technology to eventual application, as well as develop their own skills and careers.50
20.The National Programme is overseen by a Strategic Advisory Board comprising representatives from academia, industry, Government and the four hubs.51 This Board published a national strategy for quantum technologies in 2015, which set out five key aims:
- enabling a strong foundation of capability in the UK;
- stimulating applications and market opportunity in the UK;
- growing a skilled UK workforce;
- creating the right social and regulatory context; and
- maximising benefit to the UK through international engagement.52
Despite the five-year duration of the initial funding from Government, the strategy set out action required over a 20-year period.
21.With the initial funding for the National Quantum Technologies Programme due to end in 2019,53 we heard that the programme had achieved broad success and placed the UK’s quantum technology sector in a world-leading position.54 Jonathan Flint, President-Elect of the Institute of Physics, told us that of the many academic and industrial collaboration programmes he had been involved in “the quantum programme is one of the best, it is certainly the most productive”.55
22.The Programme has so far involved at least 225 companies and attracted around £130m of external funding, over £36m of which has come from the private sector.56 Professor Knight, who sits on the National Programme’s Strategic Advisory Board, suggested that the programme’s success was demonstrated by the similar efforts other countries were now planning.57 UK Research and Innovation told us that “the first phase of the National Programme has exceeded expectations in turning [the UK’s] scientific strengths into early stage technologies”.58 The main criticisms of the National Programme related to the lack of progress that some, such as Teledyne e2v, felt had been achieved on recommendations made for the Programme by the Government Office for Science in 2016.59 The main recommendations for which a lack of progress was highlighted included:
- confirmation of the National Programme’s continuation beyond 2019;
- the establishment of ‘Innovation Centres’ to drive the commercialisation of quantum technologies; and
- the creation of a new body to co-ordinate the Programme’s different activities “more effectively”.60
Professor Delpy explained that, for those recommendations that could not be rapidly addressed, the National Programme’s Strategic Advisory Board had drawn up plans for future action, but that delivering upon these plans would be dependent upon continuation of the National Programme.61
Continuing the National Programme
23.In keeping with the Government Office for Science’s recommendation to continue the National Quantum Technologies Programme, Professor Delpy told us that the Programme’s Strategic Advisory Board had submitted a bid to the Government setting out plans for a second phase of the National Programme.62 Professor Knight explained that the priorities for this second phase would be to support “the skill base, the research base and the Innovation Centres”.63 The funding required for the bid was estimated to be around £338m.64
24.We heard a great deal of support for continuation of the National Programme from across the quantum technologies community, with a variety of arguments for its continuation offered.65 The quantum technology community also made clear the urgency with which a decision on the programme’s future was required.66 We therefore wrote to the Chancellor of the Exchequer in July and September 2018, outlining our support for a second phase of the National Quantum Technologies Programme and urging the Government to make a decision on the Strategic Advisory Board’s bid as soon as possible.67
25.Responding to our letter from July 2018, the Chancellor announced in September 2018 the allocation of an £80m extension to funding for the National Quantum Technology Hubs, subject to business case approval.68 Professor Sir Mark Walport, Chief Executive of UKRI, explained that this meant that the Hubs were “essentially being funded at a continuation of the level they had before”.69 He clarified that the business case consideration was “routine for an investment of this scale” and would “be done well in time for the putative start of the next programme”.70 The 2018 Budget subsequently announced:
The Government will invest a further £235m to support the development and commercialisation of quantum technologies, including up to £70m from the Industrial Strategy Challenge Fund, and £35m to support a new national quantum computing centre.71
This money will also support “a new training and skills package”.72 Prior to us writing, the Government had already allocated £20m for a quantum technologies ‘pioneer fund’ to “support the development of between three and five prototype quantum-enabled devices”, as well as £15m of capital investment to allow the Hubs to purchase new equipment.73 Overall, this takes funding for the second phase of the National Quantum Technologies Programme to £315m, not far short of the £338m that the Programme’s Strategic Advisory Board had estimated was required to complete a second phase.
26.Quantum technologies offer the potential for significant economic growth and improved capabilities across multiple industry sectors. The first phase of the National Quantum Technologies Programme has placed the UK in a world-leading position. The Government announced £235m of funding for quantum technologies in the 2018 Budget, taking total funding for the next phase of the National Quantum Technologies Programme to £315m. We welcome the Government’s decision to support a second phase of the National Quantum Technologies Programme with this funding, which is broadly commensurate with the Strategic Advisory Board’s estimated requirements.
7 The rules of quantum physics must be applied most commonly to predict behaviour that occurs on the scale of individual atoms, although quantum behaviour can be observed at everyday length-scales under other conditions, for example at extremely low temperatures—Richard Feynman, Robert Leighton and Matthew Sands, ‘The Feynman Lectures on Physics’ (1963), sections I-2–3 and III-4–6
8 Government Office for Science, ‘The Quantum Age: technological opportunities’ (2016), p17
10 Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, ‘Quantum technologies’, accessed 11 July 2018
11 UK National Quantum Technologies Programme, ‘Quantum technologies’, accessed 13 July 2018
13 UK National Quantum Technologies Programme, ‘UKNQT Hubs’, accessed 13 July 2018
14 Q2; the surrounding environment encompasses anything that could disturb the quantum system in question, such as neighbouring atoms or electric or magnetic fields
16 Government Office for Science, ‘The Quantum Age: technological opportunities’ (2016), p38
19 UK National Quantum Technologies Programme, ‘A roadmap for quantum technologies in the UK’ (2015), pp13–14
20 Government Office for Science, ‘The Quantum Age: technological opportunities’ (2016), pp29–36
22 UK Quantum Technology Hub, ‘Annual Report 2014–15’ (2015), p6
23 Government Office for Science, ‘The Quantum Age: technological opportunities’ (2016), p50
24 ‘Quantum cryptography to protect Swiss election’, New Scientist and ‘Durban’s high tech stadium’, FIFA, both accessed 20 July 2018
25 Quantum Communications Hub (QUT0009) and Quantum Communications Hub, ‘Annual Report 2016–17’ (2017)
26 The steady miniaturisation of these components over the last 50 years has driven ‘Moore’s Law’, the observation that the number of them on a computer chip doubles every two years, with commensurate exponential improvement in computing capability over time. However, this progress is expected to end soon, as the components reach the fundamental size limit of a single atom. Quantum computers are hoped to be able to continue improvements in computing capability.
27 Government Office for Science, ‘The Quantum Age: technological opportunities’ (2016), p16
35 National Quantum Technologies Programme Strategic Advisory Board, ‘A roadmap for quantum technologies in the UK’ (2015)
38 Teledyne e2v (QUT0016); A review of the development timescales of various technologies found that the time taken for market deployment and commercialisation is often comparable or even greater than the time taken for invention, development and demonstration—Gross et al., ‘How long does innovation and commercialisation in the energy sectors take? Historical case studies of the timescale from invention to widespread commercialisation in energy supply and end use technology’, Energy Policy vol 123 (2018)
39 For example, see: UCL Quantum Science and Technology Institute (QUT0008), para 23; Quantum Technology Hub for Sensors and Metrology (QUT0013); and Professor Sir Peter Knight (QUT0015)
41 Q227; this broadly tallies with UK Quantum National Technologies Programme, ‘A roadmap for quantum technologies in the UK’ (2015) and written evidence from Dr Ashley Montanaro et al. (QUT0005), para 7 and the UCL Quantum Science and Technology Institute (QUT0008), para 23 but Dstl has published a more conservative estimate of after 2030—Dstl, ‘UK Quantum Technology Landscape 2016’ (2016)
47 HM Treasury, ‘Autumn Statement 2013’ (2013), para 1.210
48 UK National Quantum Technologies Programme, ‘UKNQT Hubs’, accessed 11 July 2018
49 National Quantum Technologies Programme, ‘Delivering the National Strategy for Quantum Technologies’ (2016), p3
50 UK Research and Innovation (QUT0023), Annex 1 and National Quantum Technologies Programme, ‘Delivering the National Strategy for Quantum Technologies’ (2016), p2
51 ‘Strategic Advisory Board’, National Quantum Technologies Programme, accessed 9 October 2018
52 National Quantum Technologies Programme Strategic Advisory Board, ‘National Strategy for Quantum Technologies’ (2015), p4
54 For example, see: Airbus (QUT0001); QuantIC (QUT0002), paras 6 and 21; Networked Quantum Information Technologies Hub (QUT0006), para 3; University of Sussex (QUT0007), para 5.2; Professor Sir Peter Knight (QUT0015); Fraunhofer UK Research Ltd (QUT0021), section 3; Ministry of Defence (QUT0026), para 4; Q182
57 Q52; programmes similar to the UK’s National Quantum Technologies Programme have been proposed or initiated in the USA, the EU and Canada—US Congress, House of Representatives Bill 6227, ‘National Quantum Initiative Act’ (2018); EU Quantum Flagship, ‘Quantum Technologies Flagship Final Report’ (2017) and ‘Quantum Canada’, National Research Council Canada, accessed 10 October 2018
59 For example, see: QuantIC (QUT0002), para 5; Institute of Physics (QUT0010), para 3; Teledyne e2v (QUT0016); Qq51 and 311–312
60 Government Office for Science, ‘The Quantum Age: technological opportunities’ (2016), pp9–14
65 See, for example: QuantIC (QUT0002), para 6; University of Strathclyde (QUT0004); Networked Quantum Information Technologies Hub (QUT0006), para 3; University of Sussex (QUT0007), para 1; UCL Quantum Science and Technology Institute (QUT0008), para 1; Quantum Communications Hub (QUT0009); Institute of Physics (QUT0010), para 7; Quantum Technology Hub for Sensors and Metrology (QUT0013); Teledyne e2v (QUT0016) and National Physical Laboratory (QUT0017), para 10. The arguments for continuation included: the opportunity for economic and social benefit; the benefit for national security as well as prosperity; the wide applicability of quantum technologies to other technologies and different sectors; the connection with the photonics industry, a current UK strength; and the UK’s world-leading position on quantum technologies.
66 For example, see: University of Sussex (QUT0007), para 7.1; Quantum Communications Hub (QUT0009); Institute of Physics (QUT0010), para 7; Qq25–26, 163–164 and 249–250
67 Letter from Rt Hon Norman Lamb MP to Rt Hon Philip Hammond MP, 18 July 2018; letter from Rt Hon Norman Lamb MP to Rt Hon Philip Hammond MP, 12 September 2018
71 HM Treasury, ‘Budget 2018’ (2018), para 4.20
72 ‘New funding puts UK at the forefront of cutting edge quantum technologies’, Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy and Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, accessed 2 November 2018
73 UK Research and Innovation (QUT0031); ‘UK to lead second revolution in quantum technologies’, UK Research and Innovation, accessed 24 October 2018
Published: 6 December 2018