Memorandum by World Organisation for Animal
Health (OIE)
The OIE was created in 1924 with the aim of
sharing animal disease information and controlling the international
spread of infectious animal diseases. Under our current strategic
plan 2006-10, the OIE's primary mission now is "to improve
animal health worldwide". This requires all 172 OIE Members
to share the same commitment and political will. New institutional
and technical mechanisms for preventing and controlling animal
diseases will have to be developed at a national, regional and
worldwide level.
Question 1: Opinion on the global situation with
communicable diseases; and
Question 18: View on the global threat from new
or previously unrecognised infectious diseases and from the transmission
of infections from animals to humans.
1. As a result of globalisation and climate change
the world is currently facing an unprecedented conjunction of
emerging and re-emerging animal diseases and zoonoses (animal
diseases transmissible to humans). Improving the governance of
animal health systems in both the public and private sector is
the most effective response to this alarming situation.
2. As agriculture increases in complexity
and sophistication, routine costs associated with production decrease.
However, the potential costs of disease increase. Agriculture
is increasingly using concentrated production methods and, as
animal densities increase, genetic diversity is decreased. Even
in vertically integrated commercial farms, animals are constantly
on the move. Some modern farming practices raise the stress levels
of livestock, making them more susceptible to infectious agents.
3. The accelerating emergence of new diseases
risks threatening human and animal populations globally has been
the subject of considerable discussion, with particular reference
to the risks presented by globalisation and the potential use
of biological agents by terrorists.
4. The OIE and the World Bank, in collaboration
with the FAO, held an international conference "Global Animal
Health Initiative: the Way Forward" in October 2007, where
the risks and sources of hazards to human health, as well as the
recommended measures to address these, were discussed. In a keynote
presentation to the Conference, Dr Lonnie King of the United States
Centres for Disease Control, highlighted the following risk factors:
— Climate change and extreme weather
events;
— Genetic changes and evolution of
micro-organisms, including the emergence of pathogens that are
resistant to commonly used antimicrobial agents and disease vectors
that are resistant to parasiticides;
— Global movement (ie tourism and trade)
of people and goods, in some cases leading to translocation of
pathogens and their hosts, including insect vectors of disease;
— Changing behaviour of human populations,
including in the selection and preparation of food;
— New technologies, including in global
transport and processing and preparation of foods;
— Changes in the health status of the
human population, including demographic changes and the emergence
of immunosuppression associated with other chronic conditions
and/or medical treatments;
— Expansion of human and animal populations
into new ecological settings, setting the scene for closer interactions
with novel pathogens and disease vectors;
— Changes to global ecology due to
human interventions and other causes (eg global warming);
— Periods of civil unrest and war,
which can cause large displacements of human and animal populations
into new areas and, through the breakdown of established human
health and animal health programmes, provide a situation where
both new and old diseases can flourish;
— Intent on harming (bioterrorism,
agroterrorims, bioviolenec).
5. This list is not exhaustive. Comprehensive
reviews have been published on this topic, for example:.
— Proceedings of the workshop on Global
Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events: Understanding the Potential
Contributions to the Emergence, Re-emergence and Spread of Infectious
Disease. December 2007 (http://www.iom.edu/CMS/3783/3924/45653.aspx);
6. Improving the governance of animal health
systems in both the public and private sector is the most effective
response to this alarming situation.
7. Animal diseases have a serious economic
and social impact on the rural economy of rich and poor countries
alike. The animal production industries in rich countries are
often free of the serious livestock diseases. In many cases, and
at great expense, the serious animal diseases, such as foot and
mouth disease (FMD), have been eradicated, but free countries
remain at risk of disease reintroduction from still endemic countries,
with resulting enormous economic losses, not only limited to the
agricultural sector. For developing countries, animal production
is important to the survival of poor rural communities. Disease
is a constant threat to animals raised in these countries and
it is a serious problem for poor communities in rural and peri-urban
areas. Such communities are currently incurring severe losses
due to animal diseases and these losses are on the increase.
8. There can be no doubt that improving
animal health is a global public good. More than 120 countries
need help to reach a situation that is satisfactory for them and
that reduces the sanitary risk to other countries. The current
situation clearly calls for the expression of international solidarity
in the global interest. The Veterinary Services in developed countries
also need to be re-examined and in some cases new priorities need
to be established. In the past, the majority of resources were
directed towards the eradication of serious livestock diseases
and in some countries the Veterinary Services have suffered from
their success. As a result of successful disease eradication campaigns,
some Veterinary Services have been downsized to a point that is
unsustainable. To be capable of early detection of and rapid response
to diseases of animal and/or public health importance, a sustainable
veterinary infrastructure and scientific capability must be maintained.
9. Investing in new animal health systems
throughout the world helps to protect countries from natural or
bioterrorist threats linked to the reintroduction of infectious
animal diseases and zoonotic diseases that they have succeeded
in eliminating. It is also important to safeguard public human
health, reduce poverty and open to all countries the possibility
of trading their agricultural products internationally.
Question 2: What reliable data exist regarding
the numbers of people infected globally with the four diseases
on which the Committee is focusing particular attention? What
trends are discernible in both the numbers infected and the patterns
of infection? And what are the main underlying causes of infection
and of any changes in incidence and pattern?
The OIE comments relate to avian influenza.
10. As a partner with FAO and WHO the OIE
has taken important steps to improve the reporting and dissemination
of information relevant to cases of human infection with H5N1
HPAI (see paragraphs 11-17 for a description of relevant activities
involving the OIE).
11. For zoonotic diseases, it is important
to control them at the source, meaning in animals. It is well
established that control of zoonoses in animals is cheaper and
more effective than human pandemic preparedness cost. As regards
HPAI, the OIE notes that all cases of human infection are directly
related to infection in poultry. No human infections have been
detected in regions where poultry are free of H5N1 disease and
most infections are related to direct contact with infected birds.
To date, more than 200 people have died, with the highest number
of people in Indonesia. Human-to-human transmission is extremely
rare, with only a few cases suspected to have occurred in Indonesia,
Cambodia, Pakistan and Vietnam. For this reason, it is worrying
to note that human cases of H5N1 infection continue to be reported
in certain countries that are nonetheless silent on reports of
infection in poultry. For this reason the OIE wrote to several
countries in December 2007, reminding them of their official obligations
as OIE Members to report all findings of highly pathogenic avian
influenza in poultry and other avian species.
Question 3: What intergovernmental surveillance
systems exist to give early warning of outbreaks of infectious
diseases? Are these systems adequate? What improvements might
be made?
12. The OIE manages the World Animal Health
Information System (WAHIS), which depends on the commitment, linked
with their OIE membership, of OIE Members to officially notify
to the OIE their important animal diseases, including zoonoses.
WAHIS includes an early warning system and a disease monitoring
component. All OIE Members can provide, including by electronic
means, direct input to the OIE early warning system and the OIE
worldwide on line database on animal diseases (WAHID). The OIE
is the key global organisation committed to providing official
information on animal diseases, including highly pathogenic avian
influenza, and on exceptional epidemiological events. While WAHIS
is adequate for the time being, the OIE has established an ongoing
program of upgrading in response to the needs identified by users.
The OIE is currently emphasising the identification and training
of responsible national officials (172 National focal points)
for disease notification to maximise the value of information
provided by OIE Members.
Question 4: Given the continuance of current
or planned intergovernmental programmes to prevent or control
the four diseases, what predictions can be made of their likely
spread and pattern over the next 10 years? and
Question 11: What intergovernmental action
is planned or in hand for early detection of the transmission
of avian flu from birds to humans and of human to human transmission
in potential source countries? Is this proving sufficiently effective
to prevent an influenza pandemic? What more could be done?
The OIE comments relate to highly pathogenic
avian influenza and other major epizootic diseases of animals,
including zoonotic diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(BSE) and bovine tuberculosis (TB).
13. Collaboration between the OIE, FAO and
WHO is ongoing with regard to the prevention and control of major
epizootic diseases of animals, including zoonotic diseases. With
specific reference to avian influenza, over the next 10 years,
the OIE will work towards significantly reducing H5N1 virus infection,
based on:
— reducing the risk of human exposure
to H5N1, thereby diminishing the threat of pandemic human influenza;
— mitigating the negative impact of
the disease and its control on production, markets and trade in
poultry products;
— supporting the livelihoods of poor
communities that depend on poultry for income and food security.
14. The global strategy adopted by OIE and
FAO sets out three concurrent priorities:
1. In endemically infected countries, the
incidence of HPAI must be controlled to reduce the risk of human
exposure to H5N1 infection and to limit the threat of virus dissemination
to other countries.
2. In countries experiencing sporadic outbreaks,
intensive efforts to eradicate the disease must be supported.
Results will depend on progress made in reducing HPAI in endemically
infected countries.
3. All countries are "at risk"
of HPAI incursion. However, some countries, by virtue of geographic
location, poultry production systems and level of economic development
are at particularly high risk and would suffer particularly serious
consequences. In these countries, surveillance, preparedness and
response capacity must be improved.
15. OIE is also pursuing the goal of strengthening
States' capacities to rapidly detect the presence of HPAI and
other emerging diseases and take appropriate emergency actions,
thereby minimizing pathogen load and economic impact. It is important
to ensure the efficacy of public services responsible for formulating
the relevant legislation and effectively controlling its application.
Efficient veterinary services, based on good cooperation between
livestock owners and private veterinarians, are key to the early
detection of animal diseases.
16. In 2005 the OIE and FAO established
a joint network of expertise on avian influenza (OFFLU) which
has as its most important objective improved sharing of virus
isolates and their sequence data. Continuous analysis of strains
is important to get a better understanding of AI epidemiology
and to track possible mutations that may change the biological
behaviour of the viruses. OFFLU also helps laboratories in infected
and at risk countries and functions as the veterinary counterpart
of the WHO influenza working group. By sharing strains and sequences
with the WHO network, OFFLU supports the development of a human
vaccine in case of a pandemic.
17. OFFLU is also a precious source of scientific
expertise. It maintains a database of experts recognised for their
excellence, who may be available for missions, under the overall
management of the FAO/OIE Crisis Management Centre. Additionally,
some specific missions requiring laboratory and scientific expertise
may be carried out directly by the Network.
Question 4 (end of sentence): What predictions
can be made of (the four diseases) likely spread and pattern in
the next 10 years?
The OIE comments relate to highly pathogenic
avian influenza.
18. Since outbreaks of H5N1 highly pathogenic
avian influenza (HPAI) started in Asia in late 2003, the disease
distribution and dynamics have evolved significantly. In Asia,
some countries that suffered extensive dissemination of infection,
including Vietnam, China and Thailand, have had great success
in bringing the disease under control. Indonesia and Bangladesh
still need to establish good control. Other countries in South
East Asia have suffered outbreaks but have achieved control and
in some cases eradication. Following spread of the disease to
Europe and northern and western Africa late in 2005, many countries
were able to eliminate the disease. Notable exceptions are Egypt
and Nigeria where the disease is still endemic, and some other
African countries, which are experiencing sporadic outbreaks.
Some countries detected their first outbreaks in 2007, eg Togo,
Benin and Poland.
19. The OIE sees a positive trend overall,
in terms of States' performance in early warning, detection and
response, as well as an improvement of the quality of veterinary
services and a reduction in the number of outbreaks per country.
However, more needs to be done to ensure that positive trends
are maintained.
Question 5: What do you consider to be the
principal blockages to achieving progress in the prevention or
control of the four diseases? How might these blockages be removed
by more, or better-targeted of better-coordinated intergovernmental
action?
20. The OIE comments relate to the main
international blockages to achieving progress in the prevention
and control of highly pathogenic avian influenza. The intergovernmental
actions under way are described in paragraphs 13-17.
21. Highly pathogenic avian influenza remains
largely a disease of poultry that occasionally spreads to humans
and other mammals and the viruses that cause this disease have
not yet developed the capacity for sustained human-to-human transmission.
The risk of a human influenza pandemic will persist while influenza
A viruses continue to circulate in animal populations unchecked.
Therefore, control of this disease at source in poultry remains
the priority intervention. It is well established that the control
of zoonotic diseases in animals is both more effective and more
cost effective than managing the effects of these diseases in
humans. Better tools need to be developed to support diagnosis,
early detection and effective management of avian influenza in
poultry, through applied scientific research and collaboration.
22. Although humans appear to be exposed
to avian H5N1 viruses primarily through contact with infected
poultry, specific risk factors and alternative sources of human
exposure remain undetermined and scientific research is needed
to elucidate these factors and provide solutions.
23. Uninfected countries are also important
participants in the global struggle against avian influenza. They
must strengthen their preparations to deal with virus incursions
into poultry. In the case of developing and in-transition countries,
planning and preparedness must be supported by the international
community.
24. Many countries do not have adequate
preparedness plans to deal with pandemic influenza in the human
population. All countries need to improve their capacity to deal
with the emergence of a novel pandemic strain of influenza virus.
Question 6: What role does the organisation
play in combating the four diseases? Do you believe that it is
correctly configured and adequately resourced to do the job? With
which other organisations do you collaborate? How would you assess
the degree of synergy?
The OIE comments relate to avian influenza and
other epizootic animal diseases, including zoonotic diseases.
25. The prevention and control of zoonotic
diseases by implementing OIE standards and guidelines within the
framework of the World Trade Organisation Agreement on the Application
of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (the SPS Agreement) are
an essential component of public health policies. The current
H5N1 avian influenza crisis is a perfect example of this, but
there have been many other crises involving zoonotic diseases
(such as severe acute respiratory syndrome [SARS], Nipah virus,
bovine spongiform encephalopathy [BSE], Rift Valley fever and
rabies). OIE standards cover disease control, diagnosis, surveillance
and trade. They are science based standards that have been adopted
by the OIE's 172 Members following well established democratic
and transparent procedures.
26. In addition to elaborating standards,
the OIE is responsible for compiling a list of Member Countries
and Zones that are officially recognised as being free from certain
animal diseases, comprising foot and mouth disease (FMD), rinderpest,
contagious bovine pleuropneumonia and BSE. It has been suggested
that this list should be expanded, to include, for example, highly
pathogenic avian influenza. The International Committee (the General
Assembly of National Delegates) is empowered to take such decision.
It is clear that the OIE would need significant additional resources,
both financial and staff, to respond to such a decision.
27. The OIE is responsible for the global
provision of official information on animal diseases including
zoonoses, based on the obligations of its Members to notify diseases
and significant epidemiological events. These obligations are
set out in Chapter 1.1.2 of the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health
Code and Chapter 1.2.1 of the OIE Aquatic Animal Health
Code.
28. One of the most important roles played
by the OIE is in advocacy for the world's Veterinary Services.
As mentioned above, a collective political commitment is needed
if the world is to deal with serious animal diseases and zoonotic
diseases more effectively. To secure this commitment, intergovernmental
organizations, regional organizations and individual countries
must be prepared to provide policy makers with the right information,
arguments and tools. The OIE is a key player in this process.
Convincing arguments must be based on a qualitative and quantitative
evaluation of the political, social and economic benefits to be
gained by investing more in new national, regional and worldwide
animal health systems. Recent studies conducted by the OIE in
conjunction with the World Bank and the FAO clearly demonstrate
the significant economic advantage of investing in disease prevention
rather than simply responding to disease incursions. Disease prevention,
in turn, depends upon field networks for surveillance and for
the administration of vaccines, where this is judged to be appropriate.
29. An important blockage to the effective
control of serious animal diseases, including highly pathogenic
avian influenza, is the lack of governance and limited effectiveness
of national veterinary services, particularly in some developing
countries where multiple government priorities (eg health, education,
physical security) compete for scarce resources. Veterinary Services,
including both public and private sector components, are in the
front line when it comes to improving animal health and welfare.
Increasing their effectiveness depends on the mobilisation of
adequate human and financial resources. Good governance of Veterinary
Services is a key element for success. Appropriate standards for
good governance are described in the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health
Code. Good governance requires both appropriate legislation and
the necessary human and financial resources to apply it. Effective
collaboration with other government sectors (human health and
environmental management) and with stakeholders (livestock producers
and community representatives) are important elements of good
governance.
30. By evaluating VS compliance with the
quality standards set out in the Terrestrial Animal Health
Standards Code, the OIE can also identify priority areas for
investment to obtain the needed improvements. The OIE aims to
ensure that effective veterinary surveillance networks are in
place everywhere, since early detection of diseases and quick,
effective response are the keys to effective prevention and control
of natural and deliberately introduced animal health disasters
and this is accepted by all OIE Members.
31. In partnership with the World Bank and
other major donors, the OIE is undertaking evaluations of the
Performance of Veterinary Services (OIE-PVS) in more than one
hundred countries, using experts trained and certified by the
OIE. The World Animal Health and Welfare Fund, which was established
by the OIE in 2004, is dedicated to this work of evaluation and
analysis. The Fund is currently supported by Australia, Canada,
the European Commission, France, Japan, Switzerland, the United
Kingdom, the United States (US Department of Agriculture) and
the World Bank. The importance of the complementary role that
stakeholders (private sector and NGOs) play in carrying out animal
disease surveillance is recognised in the OIE PVS process. The
Fund also provides continuing education for national officials
in charge of modernising the VS and maintaining relations with
the OIE and for relevant private sector representatives.
Question 7: What are the main non-health causes
of the spread of the four diseases? To what extent can intergovernmental
action in non-health fields contribute to alleviation of their
spread? What action is taking place or planned in these areas
and what more needs to be done? Do you consider that there is
sufficient "joined-up" thinking in approaching the problem?
32. As mentioned in paragraph 4, many non-health
factors are contributing to the spread of infectious diseases,
including zoonoses, globally and the actions of governments and
intergovernmental organisations must address these underlying
factors to the maximum extent possible. It is the view of the
OIE that maintaining and in some cases strengthening the following
activities will help to address some of the non-health factors
listed in paragraph 4:
— Elaboration of standards for international
trade in animals and animal products and helping all countries
to implement the standards.
— Supporting countries in the diagnosis,
early detection and reporting of diseases and unusual epidemiological
events, including providing guidelines on disease surveillance
in wildlife.
— Development and approval of new technologies
to detect and control animal diseases and to protect the public
from zoonotic diseases.
— Strengthening the legislative base
and governance of Veterinary Services, including communications
networks with Human Health Services at national, regional and
global levels.
— Establishing standards for prudent
antimicrobial usage in animals, respecting human health and animal
production needs, and supporting countries' implementation of
these standards.
Questions 8, 9 and 10: No OIE comment.
Questions 12, 13 and 14: No OIE comment.
Question 15: What interchange exists between
States in regard to knowledge of and training in the diagnosis
and treatment of the four diseases or regarding preparations for
dealing with outbreaks? What improvements might be made through
intergovernmental action?
The OIE comments relate to the control of avian
influenza and other serious animal diseases, including zoonotic
diseases.
33. Before the extensive spread of H5N1
HPAI in late 2003, FAO and OIE had already developed a Global
Framework for the progressive control of Transboundary Animal
Disease (GF-TADs), including a critical role for the WHO in relation
to zoonotic diseases. It is the view of the OIE that the GF-TADs
and other current activities described in paragraphs 34—38
needs to be maintained and supported by the international community.
34. The GF-TADs was developed with a strong
emphasis on partnership with key regional organisations, including
ASEAN and AU-IBAR. The GF-TADs has already shown itself to be
an effective platform for global and regional coordination and
collaboration of international and regional bodies in support
of States engaged in the prevention and control of HPAI (and other
serious animal diseases). The tools that have been developed and
applied include:
— The Global Early Warning System (GLEWS),
which provides disease intelligence and modelling for disease
outbreak early warning;.
— A Crisis Management Centre, for provision
of a rapid response to disease events, for countries requesting
support;
— A network of expertise on avian influenza
including the OIE and FAO Influenza Reference Laboratories, and
groups with HPAI epidemiological expertise, comprising OFFLU,
to provide technical advice and training to national laboratories,
to undertake research and to assist in the development of human
vaccines; and
— The OIE World Trust Fund for Animal
Health and Animal Welfare for supporting projects of international
public good.
35. In addition, FAO and the OIE, together
with regional agencies including AU-IBAR in Africa, are collaborating
in the development of Regional Animal Health Centres to ensure
that technical and operational personnel are accessible to national
authorities to provide support in disease prevention and control
programmes. Centres have been established in Nairobi, Bamako,
Tunis, Gaborone and Beirut and more are planned.
36. Regional and sub-regional veterinary
networks are being established and extended, engaging national
laboratory and epidemiology personnel and those with expertise
in socio-economic analysis, farming systems and biodiversity,
in forums for the exchange of ideas and information with the goal
of strengthening the quality and transparency of disease surveillance,
detection and reporting. These networks need to be strengthened
and sustained.
37. An effective laboratory infrastructure
is critical in responding to serious disease threats because laboratory
confirmation is generally required to confirm a diagnosis of a
serious disease. Ideally, each country should have its own laboratory
facilities but this is far from being the case. Some three quarters
of the 172 OIE Members are developing countries and most of the
OIE Reference Laboratories and Collaborating Centres, and associated
scientific expertise, are found in the remaining one quarter of
the OIE Membership.
38. All OIE Members are obliged to comply
or at least move towards compliance with the international guidelines,
recommendations and standards prescribed in the OIE Codes and
Manuals for both terrestrial and aquatic animals. It is therefore
very important to establish the necessary scientific expertise
in these countries. The OIE has undertaken an important initiative
to improve the geographical balance of scientific expertise to
support the veterinary services in developing countries, thereby
enabling them to fulfil their obligations as OIE Members. The
main objective of twinning is to strengthen laboratory capacity
in poorer countries with the aim that some could eventually have
OIE Reference Laboratories established. In practice the program
aims to link an existing OIE Reference Laboratory or Collaborating
Centre with a laboratory in a developing or in- transition country
with a view to exchanging scientific expertise and building capacity.
The twinning concept could apply to a "north-south"
or to a "south-south" relationship.
Question 16: The International Health Regulations
2005 are intended to provide a global framework for the rapid
identification and containment of public health emergencies. How
effective do you consider this response system to be? Do improvements
need to be made?
39. The OIE is collaborating with the WHO
in regard to disseminating reports received under the amended
International Health Regulations 2005 (IHR). In 2007 the OIE informed
all National Delegates that WHO notifications relevant to national
Veterinary Services would be disseminated by the OIE on behalf
of the WHO (see Annexes). The IHR are intended to improve the
provision of official information on human diseases for the rapid
identification and containment of public health emergencies. The
OIE has much experience in this field. While the containment of
animal health emergencies is a national responsibility, at a country's
request the OIE assists by providing experts from its Reference
Laboratories and Collaborating Centres to participate in field
missions and provide advice and technical support. It is the OIE's
view that the implementation of the IHR will help to strengthen
transparency and to improve preparedness through dissemination
of relevant information. However, States may still require assistance
with response and containment activities, which may be provided
by WHO or other international and regional organisations, as well
as by developed countries working with donor organisations.
Question 17: What intergovernmental planning
has been undertaken to cope with the impact of an outbreak of
infectious disease caused by deliberate release of micro-organisms
into the environment? Is there adequate liaison between the various
agencies involved, including intelligence, law enforcement and
health care professionals? How could action by intergovernmental
bodies help further?
40. Preventing the spread of disease through
international movements, accidental or intentional, is one of
the OIE's key objectives. One of the OIE's most important activities
relevant to this objective is the publication of international
standards and guidelines aimed at, inter alia, preventing
the importation of pathogens that are dangerous for animals and
humans.
41. The OIE and FAO Global Framework for
the Progressive Control of Transboundary Animal Diseases (GF-TADs)
provides a framework for Members of these organisations to increase
their capacity to manage disease occurrences, whether natural
or deliberately introduced. However, compliance with OIE standards
depends on the political will of national policy-makers, including
the transfer of resources to developing countries to support good
governance and appropriate policy implementation.
42. The OIE, FAO and WHO collectively provide
advice to the United Nations on preparedness for the use of biological
and toxin weapons, through participation in meetings of the Biological
Weapons Convention and associated bodies, including the Expert
Working Group set up to review the existing technical guidelines
and procedures to investigate the alleged use of such weapons.
The OIE has offered to provide experts to assist in investigations
and to provide information to the UN in the event that it becomes
aware of a suspected event of this nature.
43. The OIE has recommended that the United
Nations consider passing a Resolution obliging Members to implement
OIE standards. This would prove invaluable in strengthening disease
prevention and response mechanisms and would provide the best
safeguard against bioterrorism.
Question 18 is addressed with Question 1.
Question 19: No OIE comment.
Other relevant information:
Annex 1—"The Role of International
Organisations in the Surveillance and Control of Epizootics"
presented by the OIE Director general at the French Veterinary
Academy of 5th October 2006 (English translation of an article
originally published in French in Bull. Acad. Vet. France—2006—Tome
159—No.5 www.academie-veterinaire-france.fr.);
Annex 2—"International organisations
and their role in helping to protect the worldwide community against
natural and intentional biological disasters"; B. Vallat,
J. Pinto & A. Schudel, in Rev. Sci. Tech., OIE, 2006, 25 (1),
163-172;
Annex 3—Letter of 22nd June 2007 to all
OIE Delegates on OIE-WAHIS and WHO-IHR: "Note on international
disease information mechanisms";
Annex 4—DVD overview of the OIE.
February 2008
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