Memorandum submitted by The British Phycological
Society
0.1 The British Phycological Society is
the professional body in the UK which promotes the study of algae.
It has a worldwide membership of professional phycologists and
people who use algae in their work, including researchers, governmental
and non-governmental environmental consultants and industrialists.
0.2 Algae are phylogenetically heterogeneous,
comprising all those photosynthetic organisms that lack vascular
tissue and cuticles. The evolutionary mechanisms and pathways
by which they have evolved are still controversial, and hence
the subject of intense research (especially in the USA, Japan
and Germany), after an earlier phase of research using ultrastructural
evidence in which the UK played a leading role. Algae contribute
almost half of the annual global net fixation of CO2 and play
a predominant role in the biogeochemical cycling of silicon. They
are also ecologically important as the basis of most aquatic food
webs, in controlling nutrient fluxes in freshwater and marine
ecosystems, and in stabilizing near-shore sediments. Some seaweeds
are important foodstuffs and sources of pharmaceuticals and food
additives, and have potential use as treatments for human ailments
such as cancer and high cholesterol. Microalgae are increasingly
being assessed for their potential to produce biodiesel and other
biotech products. Some microalgae have resistant exoskeletons
with species-specific morphology, which has led to their adoption
as indicator organisms for stratigraphy, ecological monitoring
(eg for the Water Framework Directive), and studies of long-term
environmental change, including climate change. The species-level
diversity of algae is still poorly known and documented, except
in the larger seaweeds, and detection of biogeographical patterns
is compromised by an inadequate species concept and lack of validated
records. Few authoritative identification texts exist, and web-based
taxonomies are at very early stages of development, though they
have immense potential because morphology is difficult to describe
verbally and identification is greatly facilitated by good photographs
and drawings.
1. What is the state of systematic research
in the UK?
1.1 Algal taxonomists in the UK are highly
active and in demand but increasingly ageing. Numbers in full-time
employment have declined markedly over the last 20 years. Evidence
of the decline of algal taxonomists in post is shown in Table
1. Taxonomic research in macroalgae for the UK is concentrated
at The Natural History Museum (NHM) and Queen's University, Belfast.
Other expertise is primarily made up of retired individuals or
a few who are consultants. Microalgal taxonomic research is concentrated
at the NHM and Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) and is mostly
focused on diatoms, reflecting their high species diversity. When
algal taxonomists have retired in the last 10-20 years, they have
not been replaced except for one marine algal specialist at the
NHM. One systematist has been recruited by the Dunstaffnage Marine
Laboratory, but as a culture technician, not as a taxonomist.
Apart from the diatomists, there will be no-one in a research
post left working on any freshwater algae after spring 2008.
1.2 The current research barriers in taxonomic
phycology largely relate to the lack of specialist individuals
who can be called upon and the difficulty of obtaining funding
for pure taxonomy from the main research bodies such as NERC.
The onus of consultation (eg the latest call for input into the
Changes in the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, Schedule 9 relating
to the sale of non-native species) falls upon the same few individuals
and this can be costly in terms of time.
2. What is the role of systematics?
2.1 A major role of algal systematics is
species discovery, identification and understanding relationships,
which has changed radically for many groups since the application
of molecular tools c. 10-20 years ago. Even in the UK where algae
have been studied for over 250 years, we are still discovering
and describing new species; with the number still undocumented
probably in the thousands, judging by recent molecular studies
of model species complexes.
2.2 The UK has a strong user group for algal
taxonomic information/data. Users include Natural England, Scottish
Natural Heritage, Countryside Council for Wales, Environment Agency,
Scottish Environment Protection Agency, Environment and Heritage
Service, Marine Biological Association, Freshwater Biological
Association, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Field Studies Council,
consultancies and researchers in universities who use algae for
their work. There are a number of individuals within these organizations
who have very good identification skills and there is a synergy
between these users and the algal researchers, which the British
Phycological Society actively seeks to promote through its own
meetings and other activities.
2.3 Algal taxonomy makes a major contribution
to biodiversity, conservation and to personnel working in water
industries such as the Environment Industry. For example:
2.4 (i) Algal taxonomists have actively
responded to the UK Plant Diversity Challenge (the UK's response
to the CBD's Global Strategy for Plant Conservation) in the production
of "Important Plant Areas for algae" in 2007. The internationally
agreed criteria on which the work is based, assume a comprehensive
knowledge of species and diversity within a given geographical
area. Of the five authors of this report (3 marine and 2 freshwater),
only one is in a taxonomic post, three are retired and one, who
trained as a phycologist, is a consultant specializing in newts,
dormice and barn owls.
2.5 (ii) Algal taxonomists have initiated
the development of identification tools required for the European
Water Framework Directive (WFD). Here, a new flora, "Green
seaweed of Britain and Ireland" was published in 2007. Given
that the UK did not have algal taxonomists with all the specialist
expertise necessary, the project was achieved by bringing together
an international team. Of the fifteen authors, only three had
full-time employment in Britain (including one of the authors
of the "Important Plant Areas for algae" doc), and one
retired. The other authors were based in Denmark, USA, Belgium,
Ireland, The Netherlands and Finland. Apart from Denmark, the
overseas authors were between 10 and 20 years younger than those
in post in the UK. There was no direct funding for staff time
for this project but the production of the book was sponsored
by the Scottish Natural Heritage, Environment Agency, Scottish
Environment Protection Agency, Environment and Heritage Service,
Marine Biological Association and the British Phycological Society.
2.6 (iii) By actively writing the "Freshwater
Algal Flora of the British Isles", another identification
tool required for the WFD was produced. This identification guide
to freshwater and terrestrial algae, published in 2002, was compiled
by twenty-six authors. As with the new green seaweed flora (2.5
ii), it was necessary to assemble a team of international scientists
since so few algal specialists are in post in the UK. Sixteen
were from the UK, but of this number eight are retired and two
work for consultancies. The rest were from Denmark, Switzerland,
Canada, USA, Ukraine and Poland and most are over 50+ or retired.
Any direct funding only covered expenses, although NERC provided
funds to cover the preparation of illustrations. The book was
sponsored by English Nature, Scottish Natural Heritage, Countryside
Council for Wales, Northumbrian Water, Freshwater Biological Association,
The Systematics Association, The Linnean Society, Environment
Agency, NERC and the British Phycological Society.
2.7 (iv) The WFD also uses benthic diatoms
as one estimator of environmental health. Collaboration between
an independent environmental consultant, university ecologists
and institutional taxonomists provides regular checks on the quality
of identifications by the environment agencies, and a first version
of an expert key on CD-ROM was completed in 2006.
2.8 (v) The WFD also requires identification
of other algae (including freshwater macrophytes) to assess "good"
ecological status. Collaboration between Durham University and
the NHM resulted in two multi-access expert keys on CD-Rom with
the project completed in 2002. The project was funded by the Environment
Agency and the key is also on-line and available to all staff
of the Agency.
2.9 (vi) Input into the UKBAP process.
Algal taxonomists have played an active role in identifying UKBAP
algal species and in the consultation process.
6. What impact have development in DNA sequencing,
genomics and other technologies had on systematic research?
6.1 DNA sequencing has had a profound impact
on systematic and taxonomic research for the algae. It is normal
now for molecular data to be a part of algal taxonomy and systematics.
DNA bar-coding initiatives are underway in the UK for some algal
groups but progress is slow given the lack of manpower and difficulty
in obtaining funding. The UK currently leads the world with respect
to diatom bar-coding, but this pre-eminence is unlikely to be
maintained without targeted new funding opportunities. Although
DNA sequencing studies have lead to a fundamental re-organization
at some of the higher taxonomic levels, at the species level the
taxonomy they have had little impact at lower levels for most
groups of microalgae. The taxonomy of most microalgae is still
based on descriptive taxonomy with molecular studies largely confined
to those few to be found in culture collections.
7. What is the state of local and national
recording schemes?
7.1 It is possible to submit algal records
at both the national and local level through several different
routes, including NBN, MarLIN, CEH, Mermaid and other provincial
biological records centres. However, none of these is dedicated
strictly to algae, nor are they using a standardized species list,
except in the case of JNCC's Recorder 2000 which uses "A
Coded List of Freshwater Algae of the British Isles" compiled
in 1998 by staff at the NHM, Durham University and the Freshwater
Biological association (all now retired). The list was up-dated
in 2005 by a retired member of staff at the NHM. Any standard
list requires up-dating from time to time by experienced taxonomists.
7.2 Quality assurance of identifications
is extremely limited or non-existent. The Council of the British
Phycological Society via its Biodiversity and Conservation Committee,
is in the process of developing a recoding scheme for the algae
which will have a panel of specialists for identification verification.
The anticipated panel will include: UK: 2 in post (NHM and Queen's),
5 retired, Overseas: 3 in post. These records apply mostly to
macroalgae.
7.3 For microalgae, there are long time-series
records for marine phytoplankton, eg from the Continuous Plankton
Recorder, and detailed records of freshwater phytoplankton are
available for some lakes in the English Lake District. However,
interpretation of these and other old records is becoming increasingly
difficult because of changes in taxonomy made necessary by molecular
evidence; voucher material is rarely available, except for diatoms.
11. How does the taxonomic community engage
with the non-taxonomic community?
11.1 Unlike societies such as the BSBI,
the British Phycological Society does not have an amateur following.
Engagement with the non-taxonomic community is down to individuals.
This is strong in the south-east of England, but only because
of one retired individual. Any engagement usually comes about
through field excursions or short courses designed to suit the
needs the professional scientists as well as the amateur. These
courses are run on a regular basis by retired and in-post algal
taxonomists (see also 13.2).
SKILLS BASE
12. What are the number and ages of trained
taxonomists working in UK universities and other organizations?
12.1 The number and ages of trained taxonomists
working in UK universities and other organizations are given in
Table 1.
13. What is the state of training and education
in systematics and taxonomy?
13.1 The small number of algal taxonomists
in posts, most of who are not in the university sector and therefore
not regularly teaching, by default limits the amount of training
and education that can be provided by specialists. This is compounded
by the lack of jobs in algal taxonomy in the UK. It is a high
risk strategy to train research students in algal taxonomy and
has to be done on the basis that they will have transferable skills
in order for them to find employment once they have qualified.
This is further compounded by the lack of funding.
13.2 The only training in algal taxonomy
is through courses organized and run by retired and in-post algal
taxonomists. These courses have come about in response to a recognized
need. There are three, well-established freshwater algal identification
courses of 5-7 days duration each year, one of which has been
running for 16 years and another for 13 years. They are run by
three retired and one in-post taxonomist. There are two seaweed
identification courses, 3-5 days duration per year, one in England
and the other in Scotland geared to research students, research
workers and staff in conservation agencies and environmental consultancies.
13.3 The gap in capacity is noted in 1.1
for freshwater algae. Given than the majority of algal taxonomists
in posts are now over 50, there will be a gap in capacity in the
UK sector in the next 5-10 years in almost all algal groups unless
there is considerable investment in training and algal taxonomic
posts or reliance of recruiting from overseas.
Table 1
THE NUMBER OF ALGAL RESEARCH TAXONOMISTS
IN THE UK: CURRENT AND 10-20 YEARS AGO
University/other institution
| Number of current
research taxonomists
| Age | Number of
taxonomists:
10-20 years ago
|
Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory | 1
| 40+ | 0 |
| Freshwater Biological Association | 2 retired
| 60+, 90+ | 2 |
| Heriot Watt University | 1 |
60+ | 1 |
| King's College London | 0 |
n/a | 1 |
| London University (North London Poly) | 0
| n/a | 1 |
| NHM | 4.8 in post, 4 retired
| 40-80+ | 11 in post, 2
retired
|
| RBGE | 2 | 55+
| 3 |
| Royal Holloway, University of London | 0
| n/a | 1 |
| Queen's University Belfast | 1
| 50+ | 1 |
| Plymouth Marine Lab | 1 retired
| 75+ | 2 |
| Portsmouth University | 0 in post, 3 retired
| 60-75 | 4 |
| Scottish Marine Biological Association |
0 | n/a | 1 |
| University College London | 2
| 40+-55+ | 2 |
| University of Birmingham | 1 retired
| 65+ | 1 |
| University of Bristol | 1 retired
| 80+ | 3 |
| University of Buckingham | 0
| n/a | 1 |
| University of Dundee | 1 |
60+ | 1 |
| University of Durham | 1 retired
| 70+ | 1 |
| University of Glasgow | 0 |
n/a | 1 |
| University of Leeds | 0 |
n/a | 1 |
| University of Liverpool | 0
| n/a | 3 |
| University of Plymouth | 1 |
45+ | 0 |
| University of Wales, Bangor | 0
| n/a | 2 |
| University of Westminster | 1
| 50+ | 1 |
| Independent professional | 2 retired
| 70+ | 2 |
| Non-professional | 1 retired
| 70+ | 5 |
4 February 2008
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