Memorandum submitted by the Fairtrade
Foundation
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Fairtrade Foundation has received institutional
funding from a range of donors which has provided vital support
in driving forward the Fairtrade movement both in the UK and internationally.
It has enabled the Fairtrade Foundation to invest in creating
a unique partnership with producers, NGOs, companies and retailers
in order to create more opportunities for more farmers and workers
in more developing countries to participate in Fairtrade.
With even the comparatively modest amounts of
donor funding that it has received, the Fairtrade Foundation has
been able to lift Fairtrade to a new level in the UK market, outperforming
all its agreed objectives. 50% of the public now recognise the
FAIRTRADE Mark and sales are growing by over 40% year-on-year.
Currently the international Fairtrade Labelling system spans almost
80 countries, working with 580 producer partners, representing
over five million people—farmers, workers and their families—from
58 countries and across 21 Fairtrade markets in Europe, North
America, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and Mexico. The Foundation
is working with over 262 licensees, covering all of the major
supermarkets, many independent stores, wholesalers and catering
companies, offering over 2,500 products to the public in the UK
alone.
Following the pioneering work of the 100% Fairtrade
companies, more and more companies and retailers are deepening
their engagement with and commitment to Fairtrade. The Foundation
encourages all retailers to: incorporate Fairtrade into their
core strategies and invest in staff training to support this;
stock as many Fairtrade certified products as possible; switch
as many of their product lines to 100% Fairtrade as possible;
and resource sufficient marketing materials, from advertising
to "point of sale" to inform consumers about their Fairtrade
offering. Beyond this, retailers and companies should also do
more to promote and market the vision and the mission which underpin
the Fairtrade movement.
Independent academic studies as well as mountains
of anecdotal evidence demonstrate that Fairtrade is having a positive
developmental effect for farmers, workers and their families,
for their organisations and their communities too. What they have
in common is that Fairtrade has supported their organisational
democracy and transparency and personal participation and empowerment.
To give just one example from thousands, cotton producers from
the Dougoroukoroni cooperative in Mali chose to spend their first
Fairtrade premium payment on building a small two-room schoolhouse.
The new sense of empowerment amongst members engendered by their
engagement in Fairtrade meant that they then felt confident enough
to negotiate with the local government to ensure that they lived
up to their responsibilities. The result—a brand new school
for approximately 160 pupils funded jointly by the local government
and the cooperative.
The developments of recent years are in line
with the Foundation's vision of making Fairtrade the "norm",
and it believes that in 2007 Fairtrade is at a watershed. With
major strategic funding, the Foundation has the opportunity to
mainstream Fairtrade on a major scale. What is needed at this
crucial turning point is substantial and strategic donor investment
in order to ensure that the significant market development opportunities
achieved in the North can be maximised for the benefit of producers
and workers in developing countries. The Foundation believes that
the scale of the global investment needs to be in the order of
£50 million over five years, particularly in order to develop
the infrastructure for Fairtrade in the South so that more farmers
in more countries can benefit from Fairtrade. One option would
be to extend DfID's programme of long-term Partnership Programme
Agreements to the Fairtrade Foundation to enable us to work strategically
together to achieve our shared objectives of promoting greater
participation in, and benefit from, international trade by poor
people and countries.
ABOUT THE
FAIRTRADE FOUNDATION
The Fairtrade Foundation is Britain's leading
independent authority on Fairtrade. It was set up in 1992 by five
of the country's leading international development NGOs—CAFOD,
Christian Aid, Oxfam, Traidcraft Exchange and the World Development
Movement—which were later joined by the National Federation
of Women's Institutes. Membership has now expanded to include
13 civil society organisations[23]
that support the Foundation's mission and can contribute to its
work in promoting Fairtrade to the public.
The Foundation is a registered not-for-profit
organisation, with a mission to improve the lives of poor and
marginalised farmers and workers in developing countries by promoting
fairer forms of trade. The Foundation is the UK member of Fairtrade
Labelling Organisations International (FLO) that sets global Fairtrade
standards with the participation of key stakeholders including
producers and commercial partners and monitors against these standards.
Currently FLO spans almost 80 countries, working with 580 producer
partners from 58 countries and across 21 Fairtrade markets in
Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand, Mexico and Japan.
The Foundation licenses the FAIRTRADE Mark,
an independent certification label, to products that meet the
international FLO standards set for producers, their organizations
and the traders who deal with Fairtrade products. It also builds
awareness of Fairtrade amongst consumers so they can make informed
decisions about their purchasing practices, and engages with retailers
and other companies to enable them to offer their customers a
wide choice of Fairtrade labelled products. Currently the Foundation
is working with over 262 licensees, covering all of the major
supermarket retailers, many independent stores, wholesalers and
catering companies, offering over 2,500 products to the public.
1. What has been the impact of donor funding
for Fairtrade?
1.1 Over its 12-year history, the Fairtrade
Foundation has received institutional funding from a range of
donors, which has provided vital support in driving forward the
Fairtrade movement both in the UK and internationally. These donors
(see Appendix 1 for further details) include:
— DfID—has provided grants
since 1999 totalling approximately £1.8 million for a variety
of activities including public awareness-raising through the Fairtrade
Towns initiative and in schools, new product development and promoting
Fairtrade in the "out of home" sector.
— Comic Relief—has provided
funding of £250,000 over four years specifically to extend
the benefits of Fairtrade to African producer organisations and
to expand the range of Fairtrade products from Africa.
— European Commission—the
Fairtrade Foundation, along with its partners Max Havelaar France
and Max Havelaar Belgium, received €355,683 to raise awareness
and deepen understanding of Fairtrade amongst new audiences across
Europe between 2006 and 2009.
1.2 The Foundation has also received additional
funding from a range of Trusts and Foundations. The impact of
this funding has been seen in three core areas as described below.
1.3 Impact on the public: Donor funding
has been absolutely critical in enabling the Fairtrade Foundation
to invest in creating market demand for Fairtrade and has thereby
brought about a rapid expansion in opportunities for producer
groups to sell into the UK. As a direct result of its donor grants,
the Foundation has been able to mount a vigorous campaign to raise
public awareness of the FAIRTRADE Mark resulting in a considerable
expansion in consumer demand. Annual poll findings demonstrate
that 52% of the public now recognise the FAIRTRADE Mark (see Appendix
2). For those who buy Fairtrade products, over 80% rated the independent
guarantee of the FAIRTRADE Mark as "fairly" or "very"
important to them. Independent research commissioned by the NGO
network BOND in February 2006[24]
also found that 87% of the public were aware of Fair Trade (see
question 7 for further details).
1.4 This awareness has translated into a
sales value of £196 million for Fairtrade products in the
UK in 2005, signifying growth of over 1,000% since 1998. Since
2003, the rate of growth in sales has been 40% year-on-year, and
MINTEL estimated in their 2006 report "Attitudes to Ethical
Foods in the UK" that at current trends, the sales value
of Fairtrade products in the UK would exceed £230 million
by the end of 2006. It described Fairtrade as the "king of
the crop" in terms of sales growth in the ethical foods market.
What is more, MINTEL predicted that Fairtrade will see a further
138% growth over the next five years in the UK alone, with sales
crashing through the half billion pound mark (£547 million)
by 2011.
1.5 The market penetration of Fairtrade
is also high: in 2005, 42% of all households purchased a Fairtrade
certified product at least once, and this figure is rising rapidly.
Fairtrade sales now account for a stunning 20% of the roast and
ground coffee market in the UK, although reaching only around
5% of the overall coffee market to date. This snapshot of the
coffee market demonstrates how much the Fairtrade movement has
achieved to date, its potential to transform markets if the opportunities
that exist can be grasped and also how far the movement still
has to go to take Fairtrade to the next level. Hence the vital
importance of continuing to generate significant amounts of strategic
funding.
1.6 The growth in public awareness of Fairtrade
has enabled the Foundation to take the complex, distant issues
of trade, development and poverty outside of their usual audience
and into the mass market. Fairtrade makes these issues accessible
and empowering for the general public because they can do something
in their everyday lives to create positive change. Fairtrade provides
an alternative, open to everyone, which goes beyond dropping pennies
in collecting tins.
1.7 Impact on business: The growth
in public awareness and consumer demand for Fairtrade certified
products, and consequent rising expectations, has led to an explosion
of commercial interest in Fairtrade. Fairtrade labelling with
independent verification offers a structure with rules by which
companies can engage in the complex tasks of making trade work
for the poor. The Foundation has strategically targeted and worked
with businesses keen to enter into Fairtrade to ensure that they
too understand its developmental objectives, in terms of improving
the position of marginalised farmers and workers and their ability
to compete more effectively in international markets. Again, the
Foundation's capacity to respond to this business interest has
been facilitated by the grant funding it has received. However,
the Foundation is unable to ensure that all the current opportunities
emerging in the business sector are fulfilled without additional
funding.
1.8 The number of companies licensed to
sell products with the FAIRTRADE Mark currently stands at 262,
an increase of 24% since 2005. The pioneering 100% Fairtrade companies
and alternative trading organisations have led the way in growing
the Fairtrade market and as a result have seen a massive increase
in their sales. Many of these companies can now be considered
mainstream, for example, Cafedirect is 4th largest roast and ground
coffee brand in the UK. These companies are now joined by a wide
and expanding range of companies from across the food and non-food
sectors many of whom are, every year, increasing the proportion
of products they sell as Fairtrade.
1.9 The Foundation has also worked to ensure
strategic engagement in Fairtrade from across the retail sector
covering the small independents, catering and wholesale sectors.
This has lead to a number of long-term and significant commitments
by major retailers to Fairtrade:
— In 2003, in a groundbreaking move,
the Co-op switched all its own-label coffee and block chocolate
to Fairtrade.
— In March 2006, Marks & Spencer
switched all of its coffee and tea to Fairtrade, enabling over
30 new producer organisations to enter into Fairtrade and making
significant changes to volumes, values and positioning of Fairtrade.
— Sainsbury's announced in December
2006 its commitment to switch all of its bananas to Fairtrade.
This move, when completed will more than double the volume of
Fairtrade bananas bought by Britain's shoppers, increasing the
Fairtrade share of the banana market to some 16%. It is expected
to generate an estimated £4 million a year in Fairtrade premiums
for the growers and their communities.
— All Caribbean bananas at Waitrose
carry the FAIRTRADE Mark and it has also committed to converting
their entire banana offering to Fairtrade.
— Approximately a quarter of brazil
nuts in Tesco supermarkets are now sourced from Fairtrade certified
producers in Bolivia for whom the market access has been a lifeline,
while Asda has been driving forward the market for Fairtrade fresh
fruit such as pineapples from smallholders in Ghana.
1.10 These switches are in line with the
Foundation's strategic plan to engage with companies to create
new opportunities and consolidate markets for more and more producers,
and its vision of making Fairtrade the "norm". They
demonstrate that the Foundation can encourage companies to move
increasingly from statutory compliance with Fairtrade standards
to a deeper commitment to the spirit of Fairtrade.
1.11 The Grocer noted recently: "2006
will go down in history as a time when the importance of price
waned and healthy and ethically sound food became the battle ground."
The rise of Fairtrade is also having a wider impact upon public
expectations of how companies should trade with their partners
in developing countries—it is no longer acceptable for companies
to turn a blind eye to poor practice.
1.12 In 2001, the Foundation also took a
strategic decision, enabled by donor funding, to expand the product
range and so allow more producers to enter the system. The range
of Fairtrade certified products available has grown significantly—in
2003 there were around 150 products certified by the Foundation;
in 2007 over 2,500 products are available across a range of food
and non-food categories, from Fairtrade cotton, nuts and rice
to vanilla and grapes. Again these figures underline the Foundation's
ability to deliver remarkable results from small amounts of donor
finance—with long-term impacts for the farmers groups involved.
1.13 These impacts on business simply would
not have been possible without the external funding that the Fairtrade
Foundation has received. It should be further noted that to lever
these changes and retain its current position and momentum, the
Foundation has had to work on a very small cost-base in very competitive
environments. As a point of comparison, any major brand launching
even a new sub-brand would expect to spend £10-15 million
in advertising and marketing to the public. The Fairtrade Foundation
believes that recent developments represent a turning point in
the growth of the Fairtrade movement and that with additional
strategic funding in place, the opportunity to mainstream Fairtrade
on a major scale is within reach.
1.14 Impact on producers: The dramatic
market expansion of Fairtrade has drawn an enormous number of
new producers into the system, particularly over the past five
years, with the current total now standing at 580 certified producer
organizations representing over five million people—farmers,
workers and their families—from 58 producing countries.
There are now over 350 groups supplying the UK market alone—many
representing thousands of farmers, for example in the Windwards,
3,600 farmers are Fairtrade certified, 90% of all banana farmers
in the islands.
1.15 The targeted donor funding that the
Fairtrade Foundation has received has particularly enabled it
to make a radical difference to the ability of producer groups
from Africa to access Fairtrade markets. The number of African
Fairtrade certified organisations rose from 42 in 12 countries
in 2002 to 164 organisations from 23 countries by the end of 2006—an
increase of 290%. The opportunities for different African producers
able to access the Fairtrade system have also widened considerably.
In 2002, producers were largely based in coffee and tea, the major
traditional agricultural commodity crops. Now, African producers
of flowers, dried and fresh fruit, nuts, cotton and wine, to name
just a few, are able to benefit from their access to Fairtrade
markets (see Appendix 3).
1.16 This rate of growth in the number of
FLO certified producers globally is expected to continue, with
FLO expecting at least 100 new groups to enter Fairtrade annually,
reaching a total of over 1,100 certified groups by 2012. However,
the demand from producers is of course increasing and the Foundation
would like to scale up further.
1.17 Independent academic studies as well
as anecdotal evidence have demonstrated that Fairtrade is indeed
having a positive developmental impact upon producer partners
in developing countries. There are thousands of impact stories
from thousands of Fairtrade producers, each of them with a different
focus depending on the needs and requirements of the producer
and their organisation group. What they have in common is that
Fairtrade has supported them to develop their democracy, transparency,
participation and empowerment.
1.18 Independent research has proposed that
the direct and indirect impacts of Fairtrade are mediated in four
ways:
— Through the trading standards (via
the minimum price, Fairtrade premium, pre-financing and long-term
trading relationships). FLO estimates that in 2005, the Fairtrade
benefits to producers amounting to around €80 million in
terms of the Fairtrade minimum price and premium.
— Through access to markets to sell
their products and the organisational support that is often provided
by companies engaging in Fairtrade.
— Through the organisation that is
at the heart of the producer standards (via organisational change
made to meet minimum standards for certification and progress
standards for continuous improvement). The strengthening of farmers'
organisations is a key means for farmers to change their position
in the supply chain and for workers to organise into trades unions.
For example, in Kenya, the Kenyan Plantation and Agricultural
Workers Union (KPAWU) was able to work with flower farms to organise
workers and negotiate a collective bargaining agreement directly
as a result of the decision to engage with Fairtrade.
— Through the networking opportunities
that involvement in Fairtrade can bring such as the Africa Fairtrade
Network, the Network of Asian Producers and the Coordinadora of
Latin American and Caribbean producers.
1.19 The impacts of Fairtrade for small
holders and workers are experienced at three levels, examples
of which are described below:
— Producer and family—In
Costa Rica, the collapse in coffee prices in the late 1990s forced
many smallholders to sell up and move to the cities in search
of work. Many of these farmers can be seen in the cities sleeping
rough or living in ghettos, their children sucked into drugs,
gangs, crime and prostitution. This has not been the case for
members of the Coocafé cooperative. According to Gerado
Camacho, a Coocafé member, "The Fairtrade price
allows us to survive as coffee farmers. It covers our costs of
production, lets us send our kids to school, buy clothes and keep
a roof over our heads." Empowerment is at the heart of
the Fairtrade system and both producer organisations as well as
individual farmers reap the benefit. Arturo Gomez, a banana farmer
from the Costa Rican organisation, Cooptrabasur noted: "Before
I was someone that took a box and loaded it onto a train. That
was my only responsibility. I was just a farmer, who was an intermediary.
In this new system I have become an international business man."
— Producer organisation—The
reputation of Ugandan coffee suffered following liberalisation
of the coffee industry. The Gumutindo Co-operative, supported
by Fairtrade and in particular its relationship with Cafédirect,
has invested in agricultural training, organic conversion and
improved processing methods to raise the quality of its coffee.
Buyers are now knocking on the cooperative's door and farmers
are queuing up to join the organisation. Cotton producers from
the Dougoroukoroni cooperative in Mali chose to spend their first
Fairtrade premium payment on building a small two-room schoolhouse.
The new sense of empowerment amongst members engendered by their
engagement in Fairtrade meant that they then felt confident enough
to negotiate with the local government to ensure that they lived
up to their responsibilities. The result—a brand new school
for approximately 160 pupils funded jointly by the local government
and the cooperative.
— Community—The Fairtrade
premium is often invested in schools, hospitals and clinics and
in environmental projects decided by the farmers democratically.
These projects contribute towards efforts to meet the internationally
agreed Millennium Development Goals in health, education and environmental
sustainability. For example in the Windward Islands, the Fairtrade
premium has been used to build three nursery schools which means
older children don't have to miss school to look after their younger
siblings whilst their mothers are harvesting bananas.
1.20 An early study of coffee producers
in Uganda and Tanzania[25]
found that Fairtrade had brought a range of benefits including
opening the gates for the cooperatives to access export markets
and has improved access to coffee market information. The same
study also found that it was only because of the higher Fairtrade
price and Fairtrade premium that some cooperatives were able to
survive the collapse in coffee market prices in 2001 (see Appendix
4).
1.21 Another study of the Ghanaian cocoa-producing
group, Kuapa Kokoo,[26]
found that the community projects funded through the Fairtrade
premium were having a development impact upon the wider community
as well as Kuapa members. For example, over 100,000 people in
the community benefited from free medical attention and prescriptions,
and a school building project funded by the premium had "emphatically
improved pupil attendance and health and the quality of education."
1.22 A more recent study of the Heiveld Rooibus
Tea Cooperative in South Africa[27]
found that Fairtrade was playing a critical role in its success
by providing it with access to a high value market and supportive
relationships with a network of buyers as well as direct financial
assistance for infrastructure and business development. As a result,
Heiveld was a stronger and more sustainable business and organisation
that in turn provided a range of benefits to the local community.
These ranged from increased incomes and employment opportunities,
to the development of a greater sense of community and individual
self-worth.
1.23 Ongoing monitoring and evaluation of
the developmental impact of Fairtrade is crucial to both improving
the operational effectiveness of the FLO system as well as ensuring
the credibility of Fairtrade in the eyes of the public. The Fairtrade
Foundation would welcome donor funding that enables it to invest
effectively in this activity.
1.24 The evidence above demonstrates that,
even with the comparatively modest amounts of donor funding that
it has received, the Foundation has been able to lift Fairtrade
to a new level in the UK market, outperforming all key performance
indicators and demonstrating the Foundation's effectiveness. The
success of Fairtrade in meeting its aims of going from a niche
market to the mainstream could not have been imagined even five
years ago and it simply would not have been possible without the
donor funding that the Foundation has received, particularly in
its early years. However, such rapid growth, the increased demand
for more and new products, the desire of millions more farmers
to join Fairtrade, and the need to strengthen Fairtrade systems
have brought with them many challenges for the Fairtrade movement
which need to be further resourced and tackled effectively in
order to ensure continued success.
1.25 The Fairtrade Foundation, and indeed
the wider FLO network, is committed to financial sustainability,
which is achievable given the licence fee mechanism (the charge
paid by companies for use of the Mark) that is inbuilt into the
system. In the UK, the Foundation has already reached its target
of 75% of income derived from licence fees. However, the Foundation
does not believe that the international system should ever become
entirely reliant upon income from companies: it must maintain
its independence; it must maintain its focus on working with the
most disadvantaged producers and not just those who can bring
in finance; it needs to be able to make the substantial investments
into new products areas required. It would not be commercially
feasible to ask companies already selling Fairtrade certified
products, and so paying a higher commodity price as well paying
for certification costs, to also contribute to future investment
costs especially ones which may be irrelevant to their own commercial
interests. For example, Fairtrade coffee companies competing in
a cut-throat market could not also be expected to pay for work
on, for example, Fairtrade lemon grass or cinnamon, or for the
development of Fairtrade in a new country such as Sierra Leone—even
though both those initiatives would indeed be priorities in terms
of the Foundation's goals of poverty reduction.
1.26 Aid for Fairtrade is entirely consistent
with DFID's stated aims of promoting greater participation in
international trade by poor people and countries, increasing the
benefits and minimising the costs of international trade to the
poor, and building producers' capacity to participate in trade.[28]
It therefore seems anomalous that there has been pressure from
DFID for the Fairtrade Foundation to be financially sustainable
after just 12 years. DFID's programme of long-term Partnership
Programme Agreements (PPA) with a number of civil society organizations
provide a successful model of how the government and the Fairtrade
Foundation, together with its international partners, could work
together to achieve our common objectives. A PPA would allow future
funding to be based on a long-term shared strategic vision and
ensure the right level of investment in developing countries.
1.27 As a comparison, Government investment
in enabling UK farmers to switch to organic production has been
in the region of £150 million over the last 10 years. Poor
farmers in developing countries likewise need support to overcome
the obstacles to selling export-quality products and meeting Fairtrade
standards in order to switch to Fairtrade and gain the market
access and many other opportunities Fairtrade offers.
1.28 What is needed at this crucial turning
point is substantial and strategic donor investment in order to
ensure that the significant market development opportunities achieved
in the North can be maximised for the benefit of producers and
workers in developing countries. The Foundation believes that
the scale of the global investment needs to be in the order of
£50 million over five years, particularly in order to develop
the infrastructure in the South. It is currently engaged in discussions
with DfID and other national governments for a major strategic
funding package to support this effort, either through a PPA or
some other mechanism.
2. How best can donors help to develop fair
trade consumer markets in both developed and developing countries?
2.1 Developing Northern markets:
The strategy pursued by the Fairtrade Foundation in developing
the UK consumer market has had two key elements: firstly increasing
the demand for Fairtrade certified products by raising public
awareness and understanding of Fairtrade and the issues surrounding
poor farmers and their dependence on commodity crops; and secondly
ensuring companies and retailers are offering a range of products
so that public demand can be successfully met and that producers
can sell more.
2.2 The success of this awareness-raising
strategy is rooted in the way the Foundation has sought to connect
with consumers through a wide coalition of like-minded organisations.
Working with its 13 members, along with trade unions, universities,
schools and faith groups as well as companies and retailers offering
Fairtrade, the Foundation has been able to develop what has been
described by journalist John Vidal as "one of the fastest
growing grassroots social movements in Britain," reaching
out to a wide cross-section of the public.
2.3 The Fairtrade Towns campaign has particularly
caught the imagination of the public and generated its own momentum,
successfully taking awareness of Fairtrade to the heart of local
communities. It involves local activists engaging with all sectors
of their community—from the local mayor to the local mosque,
from the local hotel to the local hairdresser—to spread
awareness and understanding of Fairtrade, in order to raise local
business awareness and retail sales and influence procurement
by public and private sector organisations. The Towns campaign
has also proved to be a successful way of generating interest
in and debate of development issues. As of February 2007, there
are 222 towns that have been awarded Fairtrade status, with at
least a further 250 Towns working towards that goal. There are
also Fairtrade Universities (41 so far declared), Faith Groups
(over 3,000 churches, mosques and synagogues) and Schools campaigns.
2.4 These campaigns and activities have
been supplemented with key press and media activity as well as
production of direct consumer-facing information. As already stated,
donor funding has been critical in this effort and has been important
in leveraging significant additional funds from other sources
such as local government and business.
2.5 The success of the UK model in growing
a consumer market for Fairtrade is wholly replicable—indeed
Labelling Initiatives across the world such as Sweden, Denmark
and Australia are frequently visiting the UK to see what lessons
they can take back to their own countries. There are currently
20 Northern-based Labelling Initiatives including in the US, Canada,
France and Belgium. However there is scope and interest to develop
further markets, particularly in countries which have either recently
joined the EU, and/or where Fairtrade does not currently exist,
for example Estonia. It will, of course, require significant support
to ensure that nascent Labelling Initiatives are resourced appropriately
and thus able to realise their potential.
2.6 Developing Southern markets:
While the trend for rapid rates of growth of Fairtrade in the
consumer market is significant, in global terms the market share
of Fairtrade is still small. It is clear that for the impact of
Fairtrade to be significant in absolute terms, the market for
Fairtrade needs to grow substantially. Much of this may remain
South-to-North trade. However, a key driver of sustainability
will also be South-to-South sales and therefore the development
of Southern markets is a strategic goal. The Foundation strongly
recommends that this should also be a funding priority for donors
looking to invest in the South. There is already considerable
interest in many developing countries but the clearest potential
for success lies in the larger economies with a growing middle-class
demographic such as Brazil, South Africa, India, the Philippines
and Thailand.
2.7 In some countries—Brazil, India
and South Africa—the momentum to start Fairtrade Labelling
Initiatives is well underway but finance is proving a major obstacle.
Those involved in building initiatives in South Africa and India
welcomed the Select Committee's lines of inquiry and noted the
importance of supporting civil society efforts to promote Fairtrade
in their own countries, and of including specific resources to
support Fairtrade in multilateral and bilateral aid packages.
2.8 Noel Oettle, the Chair of Fairtrade
South Africa established in 2005 to develop and promote Fairtrade
labelling in that country, noted that "Developing consumer
markets is highly dependent on sound practice at the level of
local businesses and production systems in developing countries.
If this is significantly absent the marketing effort will eventually
fail. Our experience demonstrates that donors can provide very
significant support to enable Southern organisations to develop
their entrepreneurial and commercial capacities." He
also noted that "this can include developing the capacity
of producers and workers to become effective entrepreneurs and
to develop and maintain direct links to national, regional and
international markets. By focusing on the development of collectively
owned enterprises such as co-operatives, donors can spread the
benefit amongst the weaker economic sections of the local communities,
and mitigate against the `capture' of finance, markets and opportunities
by the elites in local communities, to the exclusion of the poor."
2.9 Southern based Labelling Initiatives
face unique challenges in establishing systems to enable them
to licence Fairtrade products for local consumption. The markets
that they need to target are, at least initially, small and generally
unaware of fair trade as a concept. Again, this will therefore
require major investment in consumer awareness raising campaigns
including on: the impact of Fairtrade Labelling including social
and economic benefits to producers, benefits to consumers, and
traceability. As highlighted previously, millions of pounds have
been spent in the UK to bring awareness of Fairtrade to its current
position and similar levels of investment will also be needed
to build markets in developing countries. Such activity will also
require building links with consumer organisations and other potential
networks prepared to raise awareness of Fairtrade as in the UK
model.
2.10 The Labelling Initiatives themselves
will require technical skills of a high standard, so that they
are able to establish and administer rigorous and efficient systems.
Providing both initial technical support and the capacity to review
and adapt systems once experience has been gained will be vital.
Investment will also need to focus on building trade audit experience,
management systems and leadership development. It will also need
to support the establishment of certification systems. In many
cases current FLO standards including pricing may need to be adapted
for the Southern context. For example, FLO sets FOB prices, while
farm-gate prices will be needed for local markets.
2.11 Supporting producers: The creation
of a significantly increased "mainstream" market for
Fairtrade where the demands for predictable quantity and quality
of products are high also raises additional challenges for the
Fairtrade system. As the Report of the Commission for Africa in
2005 noted: "Increased funding from developed countries
would help increase the participation of producer groups in `fairtrade'.
The demand for products carrying the `fairtrade' mark is growing,
but investment is needed in building the capacity of producer
groups in Africa to meet the rigorous demands of developed country
markets."
2.12 For some products, the market demand
for Fairtrade is running significantly ahead of the system's ability
to ensure supply. For example, the initial supplies of Fairtrade
certified cotton sold out within three months. There are thousands
of smallholders that would like to sell Fairtrade certified cotton
but producers need to have a greater understanding of increasingly
challenging market requirements, need timely support and assistance
to deliver to this changing market and need support to meet the
Fairtrade organisational standards. Arun Raste of the Indian Fairtrade
initiative noted the need for: "production-related support
for producers including upgrades in technology and the key availability
of working capital." For other products, many producer
groups are selling just a small proportion of their crop into
Fairtrade markets and need more support to take advantage of the
growing market opportunities that currently exist.
2.13 Donor support also needs to focus on
the requirements for sustainable agricultural production: producers
are under increasing pressure to meet higher environmental standards
for the organic and Fairtrade markets, as well as to meet supermarket
standards such as EUREPGAP. In most developing countries climate
change is already having a significant negative effect on production,
and the long-term sustainability of production systems and the
human communities that they support is under threat. For this
reason it is important to ensure that the capacity of producers
to sustain production at least matches their abilities to market
their products at viable prices.
2.14 Another opportunity to increase producers'
access to export markets is by extending Fairtrade certification
into new product areas. The Foundation's strategic plan involves
preliminary investigations of a range of areas including additional
food products such as soya and seafood, non-food products such
as jute and mining and tourism and other service industries. The
development of new product standards is a multi-stakeholder and
resource-intensive one, taking between one and three years before
a product finally reaches the market and any returns are seen.
2.15 The Fairtrade Foundation recognises
that within the context of increasing market demands on producers,
maintaining the development focus of Fairtrade is both challenging
and essential. That is why the role of FLO's Southern-based Liaison
Officers is so vital in supporting producer organisations to assist
producers in complying with Fairtrade standards and progress their
development plans. Donor funding from Dutch organisation SNV has
been instrumental in increasing the number of officers to 25.
However, even with this support, the Liaison Officers in the South
can only provide an estimated one day of service per group per
year, compared with the required level of some 10-20 days per
group per year. The current level of assistance is clearly therefore
inadequate. Support for producers is mainly limited to fire fighting,
such as following up on problems identified during Fairtrade inspections.
In fact Liaison Officers need the time and resources to identify
and introduce new producer groups to Fairtrade. Having certified
new producer organisations and enabled them to trade, a key challenge
for Fairtrade is to enable them to overcome the multiple problems
they encounter and assist them in deepening the benefits of Fairtrade.
2.16 As already stressed in the response
to Question 1, substantial international funding is now urgently
required to build the infrastructure of Fairtrade in the South
and capitalise on the significant market opportunities that currently
exist for producers. The Fairtrade Foundation, with its partners
in FLO, believe that such an investment could potentially enable
up to 45 million additional people—smallholders, workers
and their families—to benefit from the establishment of
successful and sustainable small- and medium-scale businesses.
3. How can aid be more effectively mobilised
to help producers improve the quality of their produce in order
to access fair trade markets?
3.1 Quality improvement is a key factor
in improving the success of small producers in selling into export
markets. Improvement in quality can be facilitated in a number
of ways—education to prevent poor agricultural practices,
improvements in packing at farm level and improving processing
and storage facilities, to name but a few. Producers also require
technical assistance and the infrastructure to enable them to
monitor their product quality to ensure consistent delivery of
high quality product to the market. Fairtrade certified smallholder
groups often democratically decide to invest their Fairtrade premium
in such improvements but the amounts are insufficient to solve
the problems.
3.2 Producer organisations also require
support in developing their administrative and business skills
and capabilities—key factors in ensuring their continued
economic success and sustainability. Producers also require assistance
in order to meet the requirements of Fairtrade certification on
an on-going basis. Many of the 100% fair trade and alternative
trading organisations[29]
have a great deal of experience and success in supporting producer
organisations to access export markets and the Fairtrade Foundation
would urge donors to support them further in this work.
3.3 The key for donors is to ensure that
all efforts to provide technical assistance are channelled through
an experienced, and preferably locally-based, partner organisation
which is specifically focused on promoting economic opportunities
for cooperatives, enterprises and communities through the application
of sound business and agricultural practice. The Foundation also
recommends that there is increased support to enable producers
to capture as much of the value of their product as possible and
move into processing wherever feasible.
4. How does the international trade system
impact on ethical and fair trade production (for example, the
impact of changes in the EU tariff regime for bananas on small
developing country producers)?
4.1 It is widely recognised that one of
the most effective ways of eradicating poverty in developing countries
is to establish successful and sustainable economic activity.
Fairtrade has proved to be an extremely successful model of how
people-centred development can effectively reduce poverty and
improve livelihoods. But the Foundation believes that trade is
only a "means to an end", rather than an "end in
itself", and if the trade system is to benefit all on a long-term
basis, governments have to manage trade effectively, and intervene
where appropriate to mitigate any negative social and environmental
impacts and ensure that trade is tackling poverty and facilitating
sustainable development.
4.2 Unfortunately these impacts are very
often unconsidered if not completely ignored. The last round of
WTO negotiations, the so-called Development Round, appears to
have sidelined the most important priorities of developing countries.
It has failed to deliver on promises to reduce tariff and non-tariff
barriers, or to reduce subsidies to developed country farmers.
The global trading regime also fails to act upon the principle
of special and differential treatment for developing countries
to allow them the space and flexibility to develop appropriate
trade and development policies. Time and again developing countries
have been pushed into inappropriate liberalisation leading to
increased poverty. The cases of bananas and rice are just two
examples where developing country producers have been negatively
impacted by the unequal playing field that is the global trading
system.
4.3 Rice: Rice producers in developing
countries are negatively impacted by the unfair trading practices
of rich nations that distort the market. The US Government provides
$1.3 billion in subsidies to support a crop that costs $1.8 billion
to grow—effectively paying 72% of the cost of production.
As a result the US dumps 4.7 million tonnes of rice on world markets
at 34% below the cost of production. This has a devastating effect
on the millions of smallholders in developing countries who are
dependent upon rice for their livelihoods. Further, there are
moves at the WTO to force poor countries to reduce their tariffs
on rice imports meaning they will not be able to protect themselves
from being further flooded with cheap, dumped imports. In addition
developing countries also face barriers to exporting rice as a
result of the escalating tariffs that the EU imposed upon processed
rice imports. Efforts to introduce Fairtrade certified rice in
2002 were unsuccessful simply because it was not an economically
viable proposition to sell rice bought at a Fairtrade price and
milled in-country because of the tariffs that this attracted.
One small step in the right direction was the EU decision in 2004
to introduce zero duty for six varieties of long-grain basmati
rice from India and Pakistan and a reduced tariff of €175
on polished basmati rice. As a result, a Fairtrade polished basmati
rice originating from India was successfully introduced to the
UK market in June 2005.
4.4 Bananas: The fate of the Windward
Islands' banana farmers has been under threat since the World
Trade Organisation ruled in the late 1990s that the preferential
trade arrangements set up by the European Union were illegal.
The outcome means that as preferences are gradually stripped away
between now and 2008, the island farmers will increasingly struggle
to compete with lower cost plantation bananas. There is growing
evidence to suggest that it is only access to Fairtrade markets
that is enabling the Windward Islands industry to continue to
survive. Latest figures for banana shipments from St Lucia, St
Vincent and Dominica demonstrate that while in the first quarter
of 2005, the average proportion of Fairtrade bananas was 29%,
this had risen to 72% by the second quarter of 2006.
4.5 Dr Kenny D Anthony, Prime Minister of
Saint Lucia, has noted that: "In this era of competitive
global trade, small-scale farmers like ours have little or no
chance of survival without the kind of market intervention that
is provided through Fairtrade. Not only does Fairtrade guarantee
a fair price to our farmers, but the social premium that is generated
through the Fairtrade sales provides invaluable support for projects
in rural communities throughout the Windward Islands."
4.6 In addition, the Prime Minister of Dominica,
Roosevelt Skerrit, is very clear that without Fairtrade, the island
economies would be in ruins. "Fairtrade is providing a
vital livelihood for small farmers.... It is giving people a legal
way of earning a living and maintaining stability," he
has said. "Confidence has been returned to the farmers
through access to the Fairtrade market and continued employment
is promoting peace and stability," he added. Not only
is the Fairtrade market providing a lifeline to farmers, but the
Fairtrade premium is also providing them with their only possibility
of having sufficient resources for diversification into other
areas such as fruits, avocados and even tourism, as they seek
to develop sustainable livelihoods for themselves and their children
in the future.
4.7 In Latin American countries such as
Nicaragua and Colombia, the EU banana regime has accelerated the
race to the bottom as companies drive down prices to remain competitive,
which has resulted in lower labour conditions, wages and environmental
standards.
4.8 The lesson from Fairtrade is that trade
will only work for the poor if it takes place within a policy
framework which has development as its aim rather than the maximisation
of trade per se. The Fairtrade model is a blueprint, showing
in microcosm that trade can be successfully regulated and still
be commercially viable. That is why the Fairtrade Foundation,
along with its partners in the Trade Justice Movement believe
that the UK Government must do more, at the EU and global level,
to create the macro-economic environment necessary to enable producers
in developing countries to have genuinely fair market access.
That means that tariff and non-tariff barriers to EU markets are
removed, that developed countries deliver on their commitment
to eliminate export subsidies and ensure that that global trade
policies and practices do not undercut internationally agreed
social and environmental standards, in particular core labour
standards, and to ensure that the principle of special and differential
treatment is upheld throughout trade policy to allow developing
countries to protect their own markets. The strong public commitment
to Fairtrade and their willingness to purchase Fairtrade products
gives a mandate for the Government to deliver a fairer international
trade deal for developing countries.
5. Do existing government guidelines on procurement
of ethical and fair trade products provide an enabling environment
for the development of this market and the opportunities for producers?
5.1 The consumer market for Fairtrade products
demonstrates the extent to which the public is showing leadership
in its purchasing practices and the Fairtrade Foundation calls
on Government at the national and local level to reflect this
in public sector procurement. The public sector spends 13% of
national GDP on procurement and the supply of food and catering
services in England accounts for more than £1.8 billion annually.
The existing OGC guidance of 2002 is designed to help public authorities
incorporate fair trade principles into their sourcing whilst remaining
within EC public procurement rules. However some local authorities
interviewed for Fairtrade Foundation research into the "out
of home" sector have been frustrated by both the EC procurement
rules and the OGC interpretation of them, as to how they relate
to the procurement of Fairtrade certified products. Bristol City
Council has labelled them "too restrictive" and Croydon
City Council has aired similar concerns. There still appears,
at European level, too much legal uncertainty about integrating
fair trade principles into procurement and this is undermining
efforts to promote it.
5.2 The problem seems to be that the guidelines
take a very narrow and technical approach to quality that does
not appear to include social and environmental production methods
in the same way that technical quality issues, for example health
and safety, are included. This has been legally interpreted by
some as a barrier to the procurement of ethical and fair trade
products.
5.3 Some councils have found their ability
to negotiate on Fairtrade products weakened because they have
been advised that they are legally unable to specify Fairtrade
at the tendering stage. It can be requested once a contract has
been awarded but by then councils have much less authority to
ensure that it is procured because if suppliers cannot find Fairtrade
or it is more costly the contractor has an easy way to avoid supplying
it.
5.4 There has however been a recent relaxation
of EC public procurement rules in some areas such as the environment
with public bodies now permitted to ask for products with environmentally
friendly production methods or to award extra points for them
in the contract. In July 2006 the European Parliament called on
"public authorities in Europe to integrate Fair Trade Criteria
into their public tenders and purchasing policies..." The
Foundation believes that in order for government guidelines to
remain consistent with stated EU policy, there needs to be a re-writing
of the OGC guidance to clarify that the FAIRTRADE Mark is an acceptable
form of specifying during the tendering process, as part of a
wider tender bid. The International Council of Local Environmental
Initiatives (ICLEI) has produced advice for European public authorities
wishing to purchase Fairtrade products and minimise legal uncertainties[30].
The Foundation recommends this to those seeking to incorporate
Fairtrade certified products into their procurement policies and
practices. The Fairtrade Foundation would welcome the opportunity
to participate in any process of re-writing and clarifying the
OGC guidance in respect of Fairtrade.
5.5 London 2012 has set out to achieve the
first sustainable Olympic Games and Paralympic Games. It has outlined
some of the actions and strategies in the document Towards a One
Planet Olympics, which includes a section on Ethics and Fair Trade.
This is consistent with the GLA and Mayor Ken Livingstone's aim
to establish London as a Fairtrade city and represents a fantastic
opportunity to establish London and the UK as the foremost Fairtrade
market in the world.
5.6 Sustainable procurement is central to
the delivery of a One Planet Olympics, and the independent FAIRTRADE
Mark which is already recognized in 21 consumer markets offers
the opportunity to source food & drink, flowers, sports balls
and cotton products that have already met internationally agreed
Fairtrade criteria.
5.7 The Fairtrade Foundation would welcome
working with the 2012 team to integrate Fairtrade into its overall
sustainable procurement strategy. The Foundation hopes that there
will be scope for the engagement of entrepreneurial small ethical
businesses as well as for the global brands. It would be keen
to participate in discussions as to how the Foundation might contribute
to the overall policy, guidelines for tendering, publicizing the
opportunities available and overall messaging on sustainability,
ethics and fair trade. The Foundation is also keen to advise its
business partners—large companies as well as small and medium
enterprises—on how and when there will be opportunities
to tender for supply contracts or sponsorship opportunities as
they arise, and practical ways to achieve this.
6. What is the role of supermarkets, retailers
and businesses in supporting ethical and fair trade production?
6.1 Fairtrade can only work for producers
and begin to play its part in tackling poverty if more companies
engage more deeply with Fairtrade. Alternative trading organisations
have played a pioneering role in developing and supporting Fairtrade.
The Co-op has also lead the way for high street supermarkets in
"responsible retailing" with Fairtrade at the heart
of its strategy. Increasingly, major supermarkets and retailers
have taken up the challenge presented by consumers and are demonstrating
how business can put Fairtrade and ethical issues at the heart
of what they are doing. As highlighted in Question 1, a number
of the major UK supermarkets have recently made decisions to switch
significant proportions, and in many cases 100%, of certain product
lines to Fairtrade. It is worth noting that retailers have to
date moved more quickly on Fairtrade than most multinationals
which have so far done little more than dip a toe in the water,
while all too many companies have yet to engage with Fairtrade
at all.
6.2 The Foundation urges all retailers (both
large multiples and small independents) and companies (including
multinationals, wholesalers and catering companies) to invest
substantial efforts and resources in their supply chains to support
their producers to meet quality requirements, as well as to try
and leverage as much change in supply chain practices as possible,
for example in extending their lead ordering times. Evidence from
Marks & Spencer indicates that their engagement with Fairtrade
has created a positive momentum across their business including
driving the development of labour standards, treating farmers
fairly, working with suppliers as focal points for development
and helping disadvantaged groups.
6.3 The Foundation also encourages all retailers
to: incorporate Fairtrade into their core strategies and invest
in staff training to support this; stock as many Fairtrade certified
products as possible; switch as many of their product lines to
100% Fairtrade as possible; and resource sufficient marketing
materials, from advertising to "point of sale" to inform
consumers about their Fairtrade offering. Beyond this, retailers
and companies should also do more to promote and market the vision
and the mission which underpin the Fairtrade movement. The Foundation
would welcome working with them to make this a reality. This is
not an easy process and requires intensive work and commitment
from all companies to ensure success but the benefits for producers
and also for companies makes it a target worth striving for. The
Foundation also urges companies to invest in the future of Fairtrade
and to work cooperatively with the Foundation and producers on
developing new products.
6.4 The Fairtrade Foundation also encourages
all retailers and businesses to become a member of the Ethical
Trading Initiative, which exists to promote and improve the implementation
of corporate codes of practice that cover supply chain working
conditions and aims to ensure that the working conditions of workers
supplying the UK market meet or exceed international labour standards.
7. How can Trade Unions help to ensure that
the drive for cheaper produce does not undermine social and environmental
standards in developing countries?
7.1 FLO has two core generic standards for
certification of producer organisations: one for small farmer
organisations and one for hired labour situations. The hired labour
standard applies to plantations and is only applicable to a limited
number of products. The standard incorporates the core ILO conventions
on freedom of labour, freedom from discrimination and freedom
of association and collective bargaining[31]
and considers independent trade unions the best means for achieving
this.
7.2 Too often, workers on plantations supplying
the UK and European markets face an uphill battle to earn a living
wage and enjoy decent working conditions. The relentless race
to the bottom engendered by price wars between large retailers
driving down the costs of primary products has caused enormous
social and environmental damage in developing countries. Fairtrade
certification has the potential to be a valuable tool in the struggle
to ensure that labour standards are not undermined and that unions
are able to organise more workers. For example the local General
Agricultural Workers Union (GAWU) in Ghana was able to work with
a pineapple plantation applying for Fairtrade certification to
organise workers and negotiate a collective bargaining agreement.
In Kenya, the Kenyan Plantation and Agricultural Workers Union
(KPAWU) was able to work with flower farms to achieve the same
thing directly as a result of the decision to engage with Fairtrade.
7.3 Labour unions and Fairtrade labelling
share the same goals and objectives—to strengthen workers'
rights, improve their working and economic conditions and increase
their participation in decision-making processes. FLO has historically
had limited capacity to commit resources to building more effective
relationships with trade unions locally and internationally, or
to supporting workers on plantations. The onward momentum of the
Fairtrade movement will require increased engagement with hired
labour and that in turn will need improved co-operation with trade
unions to ensure continued success. Increased donor funding is
required to achieve strengthened and structured co-operation between
labour unions and the Fairtrade labelling system in order to strengthen
worker representation and participation in Fairtrade-certified
hired labour settings.
8. In an increasingly crowded ethical marketplace,
how can consumers be supported to distinguish between different
fair trade brands, labels and codes?
8.1 It is important to be clear about the
very different roles that codes, brands and labels play. Brands
offer the public Fairtrade products and the 100% Fairtrade
pioneering brands differentiate themselves by focusing on their
long term and equitable relations with their producer partners,
as well as on the quality of the products.
8.2 Codes are generally about ensuring
adherence to core minimums and can be effective in ensuring compliance
of suppliers and businesses with minimum international labour
standards. However, the Foundation believes strongly that these
codes should not be positioned on products as consumers rightly
expect all their purchases to have been produced according to
recognised social norms such as the absence of child labour.
8.3 Independent labels are tools
to assist consumers make informed decisions about their purchases.
Indeed the key to the success of the Foundation's strategy has
been to focus on raising awareness and understanding of the FAIRTRADE
Mark amongst the public. It has also worked to distinguish the
FAIRTRADE Mark as a product certification label rather than an
endorsement of any companies' wider practices. As the only certifier
of Fairtrade in the UK, the Foundation believes that the issue
of consumer confusion while a threat is not yet a reality. A TNS
Omnimas poll showed that over half the public (52%) now recognise
the FAIRTRADE Mark and that for those who buy Fairtrade products,
over 80% rated the independent guarantee of the FAIRTRADE Mark
as important to them (see Appendix 2).
8.4 The fact that there is one single trusted
Mark is central to Fairtrade Foundation's ongoing success. Without
that, there is a risk of consumer confusion and ultimately cynicism
or a retreat into apathy. This indicates that there is still a
need for ongoing awareness raising activities. Firstly, to reach
out to those consumers who are not yet aware of Fairtrade; secondly,
to consolidate and deepen the grasp of Fairtrade amongst already
sensitised consumers so that they have a more sophisticated understanding
and level of engagement with Fairtrade and the issues of poverty
reduction and alleviation.
8.5 The Foundation is convinced that there
is a growing interest in development issues amongst the public
and the part that fair trade is playing in this is highlighted
in the research carried out by BOND following the Make Poverty
History campaign (see Question 1). The research specifically noted
that only fair trade achieved equally high levels of public awareness
as the MPH campaign in 2005 and that these high levels remained
static into 2006. Further the research notes that: "fair
trade was found to be the only way into discussions on trade which
included all types of members of the public". This is borne
out by the Foundation's own observation, supported by a wide range
of NGOs and Trade Unions, that fair trade offers an easy entry
point for the public into wider trade and development issues.
The Foundation is seeing awareness of the FAIRTRADE Mark penetrating
younger age groups which is very encouraging (in 2005, 56% of
25 to 34 year olds were aware of the FAIRTRADE Mark). The Foundation
believes that with additional funding to support towns, schools,
faith group and other awareness raising campaigns and activities
this will contribute to a new generation of people in tune with
the North's development responsibilities and the part they can
play in reducing poverty in the South. Fairtrade is very clearly
only one part of the complex range of measures needed if trade
is to tackle poverty—but it is working and growing and,
we believe, deserves wholehearted Government support.
23 The 13 members of the Fairtrade Foundation are
currently Banana Link, CAFOD, Christian Aid, Methodist Relief
and Development Fund, National Federation of Women's Institutes,
Nicaragua Solidarity Campaign, Oxfam, People & Planet, Shared
Interest Foundation, Scottish Catholic International Aid Fund,
Traidcraft Exchange, United Reform Church and the World Development
Movement. Back
24
http://www.bond.org.uk/pubs/campaign/mph/ad_mph_notes.pdf Back
25
Tallontire, A, Greenhalgh, P, Bee, F, and J Kyamanywa. 2001.
Diagnostic Study of FLO Registered Coffee Producers in Tanzania
and Uganda. Back
26
Ronchi, L 2002. Monitoring impact of Fairtrade Initiatives: A
Case Study of Kuapa Kokoo and the Day Chocolate Company. Back
27
Smith, S 2006. Fairtrade Foundation Reflect and Review. Back
28
DFID. (2000). White Paper: "Eliminating Poverty-Making Globalisation
Work for the Poor." Back
29
These include Cafédirect, Traidcraft, Twin Trading, Agrofair,
Equal Exchange, Day Chocolate Company, Hug, Gossypium, Bishopston
Trading and People Tree. Back
30
www.buyfair.org Back
31
The complete FLO standards can be downloaded from www.fairtrade.net Back
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